1. Introduction
In recent years, neuroscience and neurodidactics have demonstrated significant progress
in improving the teaching and learning process for various subjects, such as physical
education. As a reflection of this progress, very interesting studies have appeared
in the scientific literature concerning the motivation processes of students and the
influence of physical activity on brain processes and structures. In this sense, some
papers have explained how physical activity can affect both the psychological aspects
related to learning, as well as the neuroscientific aspects related to the cognitive
functions of students. In addition, recent work has shown that many of these variables
can be addressed by the teacher or the student, and a close relationship was found
between both the development and evolution of the physical education class and its
future school performance.
This Special Issue was proposed to collect the most recent research regarding the
neuroeducation, motivation, and physical activity in students of physical education,
focusing primarily on the analysis of the variables that can affect students and teachers
within the didactics and learning-teaching of Physical Education.
2. The Studies Included
We received a total of 24 submissions, of which 20 were finally accepted in this issue,
with a deadline of December 2020. As readers will see, most of the accepted publications
used cross-sectional methodologies, but there are papers with the multiple mediation
model, multi-level analysis, manuscripts using EEG, or with systematic reviews and
meta-analysis. The majority of the studies were conducted in Spain, although some
studies were conducted in other countries.
Presented in chronological order of publication within 2020, this Special Issue includes
the papers described below.
The first manuscript, by López-Belmonte et al. [1], addresses gamification and escape
rooms as a methodological tool to generate activation in students. Using a control
group and two experimental groups, through a mixed research methodology, the results
showed how the groups that received gamification obtained better results in the variables
of motivation, teamwork, and commitment to the tasks. Thus, gamification could be
an interesting didactic methodology with an attractive factor for students. The second
manuscript, by Barba-Martín et al. [2], is a systematic review about teaching games
in physical education (TGPE) between 2014 and 2019. Four databases were used to select
manuscripts related to TGPE, with a total of 12 articles which met the eight criteria
selected. Motor and cognitive learning were the most frequently assessed between all
articles of this study. The main finding was that TGPE may produce positive effects
in the primary and secondary physical education lessons. The next manuscript was by
Ureña-Lopera et al. [3], where the main aim was to analyze the motivation of soccer
players of developmental age during training time (baseline) and precompetition time.
Different categories, sport success, playing position, and relations of the motivation
dimensions with the academic performance were taken into account in this study. In
conclusion, under 16-year-old soccer players showed lower levels of motivation before
the competition. The fourth research by Moreno-Guerrero et al. [4] deals with augmented
reality within the subject of physical education. The results show how high school
students (n = 140) who experienced these experiences obtained greater motivation and
learning in the subject, especially in terms of spatial orientation. The methodology
was quantified by a design post-test. The fifth manuscript, by Fierro-Suero et al.
[5], validated the Supporting Basic Psychological Needs-4 (SBPN-4) questionnaire in
physical education, which included the novelty support factor. In addition, they tested
the mediation model to confirm the effect of novelty support in relation to basic
psychological needs and intrinsic motivation. The sample was composed by 723 students
(mean age = 13.3 years). In conclusion, the SBPN-4 was shown to be a valid and reliable
tool.
The sixth research, conducted by Romero-Rodríguez et al. [6], addresses the influence
of smartphone addiction and intensity of Instagram use on the self-esteem of physical
education students. A cross-sectional intervention was performed with 385 undergraduate
students. The results showed that gender and age were factors influencing problematic
smartphone use, with a significant positive correlation between smartphone addiction
and intensity of Instagram use. The influence of smartphone addiction on students’
self-esteem was also highlighted. The seventh manuscript, by Carlos Fernández-Espínola
et al. [7], reviewed the effects of cooperative learning interventions on intrinsic
motivation in physical education students, demonstrating the relevance of factors,
such as the duration of the program and the age of the participants, in order for
cooperative learning to be carried out effectively. This manuscript followed the PRISMA
guidelines to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis. In addition, PEDro scale
was used to assess the risk of bias and evaluate the quality of the evidence. The
eighth manuscript, by Ferriz-Valero et al. [8], is the second study about gamification
in this Special Issue. Analyses of the effects of gamification on the motivations
and academic performance of university students (n = 127; experimental group = 62,
control group = 65), show that its application in physical education led to an increase
in students’ academic performance. The ninth manuscript, by Sicilia et al. [9], analyzed
the relationship between parental and peer autonomy support and intention to exercise
in adolescents (n = 428) between 13 and 19 years old, also considering the mediating
role of attitude, control, subjective norms, and descriptive norms. The results showed
that perceived parental autonomy support was positively and statistically significantly
associated with exercise intention. Main findings suggest that subjective/descriptive
norms and perceptions of autonomy could be more important than other forms of social
influence in the exercise intention’s preference of adolescents.
The tenth research by Petisco-Rodriguez et al. [10] analyzed whether female athletes,
in particular gymnasts and female football players, have more eating problems compared
to non-athletes, looking at variables such as anxiety, self-esteem, and perfectionism.
The results showed how non-athletic adolescent girls showed more disturbed eating
behaviors and thoughts than adolescent girls in aesthetic sports. The eleventh investigation,
by García-Monge et al. [11], analyzed differences in brain activity in various types
of throwing games by making encephalographic recordings. Three conditions of throwing
games were compared, looking for significant differences (single throw, throw to goal,
and simultaneous throw with another player). The results found significant differences
especially in the high beta oscillations (22–30 Hz). The “goal” and “simultaneous”
throwing conditions showed significantly higher values than those shown for throwing
without an opponent. The twelfth study is related to gender, physical self-perception
(PSP) and overall physical fitness (OPF) in secondary school students (n = 41 boys
and 44 girls) between 12 and 17 years. Ruiz-Montero et al. [12] were the authors,
and they tried to compare the PSP and OPF between gender and body mass index status
in the participants. A multiple mediation analysis was performed with significant
results (p = 0.05). The findings showed the girls as a risk group because they felt
lower PSP and OPF than boys. The thirteenth manuscript, by Martínez-Díaz et al. [13],
aimed to determine the effects of an acute High Intensity Interval Trainig (HIIT)
session on neurocognitive and stress-related biomarkers and their association with
working memory capacity in healthy young adults. Significant post-exercise increases
in circulating levels of plasma brain-derived neurotrophic factor and cortisol were
observed, coinciding with increased performance on the digit span test. The fourteenth
manuscript, by Coterón et al. [14], compared the influence of teachers’ satisfaction
(n = 29) of basic psychological needs and frustration of basic psychological needs
on students’ behavioral (n = 644) engagement. The results revealed that, although
teachers’ autonomy satisfaction might be significant in explaining students’ engagement,
need frustration might be a better predictor of this outcome. The fifteenth study,
by Chiva-Bartoll et al. [15], analyzes the importance of the application of service
learning in the initial training of Physical Education (PE) teachers, showing significant
improvements in the dimensions of social self-fulfillment and problem-solving self-efficacy.
The H’mida et al. [16] study was the next manuscript included in this Special Issue.
The aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of a video and different pictures
(simultaneous-permanent, sequential-transient, and sequential-permanent) on complex
judo skill among novice young adults (n = 104). The results showed that the sequential-permanent
picture was the most effective presentation. The seventeenth manuscript, by Ureña
et al. [17], studied the self-regulation (SR) in pre-schoolers (n = 49) between four
and five years as strong predictor of mental health and wellbeing. They were submitted
to classroom movement breaks (CMB) of fifteen minutes with different difficulty levels.
Pre-schoolers were stimulated only with CMB according to their cognition.
The three next studies were published in 2021. The eighteenth manuscript, by Manzano-León
[18], is about the role of playful learning strategies. Gamification, game-based learning,
and escape rooms are methodologies used with university students (n = 450) between
18 and 55 years in the present study. A confirmatory factor analysis was performed
to analyze the motivation for playful learning strategies used in this study, and
therefore, in the Spanish higher education context. The nineteenth manuscript, by
Liu and Lipowski [19], addressed sports gamification on university students’ (n =
150) learning motivation and performances in physical education by tennis practice.
The total samples was divided in two groups (control and experimental group). Students
of the experimental group increased their intrinsic motivation and introjected regulation.
Finally, the last manuscript is a study with 303 physical education students by Crisol
Moya and Caurcel Cara [20]. They incorporated innovative methodologies as pedagogic
models necessary in the training of students. A structural equation model for analyzing
predictive relations between methodological factors (organizing modalities, methodological
approaches, and evaluation systems) were used. Positive relations between those three
factors were found, and indicated that perception and opinion of the physical education
students took a special role in the improvement of learning and the methodologies
used.
3. Conclusions
Of twenty manuscripts, four of them used gamification in their learning methods with
students in the physical education field. Most of them were published in 2020 (n =
17), and majority of participants were university students. This Special Issue proves
the importance and usefulness of the neuroeducation, motivation, and practice of physical
activity on students and general population. However, most of the results are based
on the physical education field. Two systematic reviews were included in the present
Special Issue. The rest of manuscript used quantitative methods (n = 17), and only
one used a mixed method (quantitative and qualitative research). We could conclude
that the quantitative method in the psychologic research is most frequently used if
we observe the analysis performed in most of the manuscripts. Moreover, most of the
studies were performed with Spanish participants in pre-school, primary, secondary,
and university students, except for two manuscripts that were performed with Chinese
students, and the last one did not specify the country. This Special Issue is considered
a significant contribution to the field of neuroeducation in physical activity and
sport. The manuscripts are diverse in subject matter and design, which enriches the
variety of the issue. The relevance of active teaching methodologies in the classroom
is evident, as they allow the student to be involved throughout the process. Motor
skills, approached from a pedagogical and integrative perspective, favor student learning
exponentially, thus favoring their psycho-pedagogical and evolutionary development.
Physical education teaching professionals need to reflect on the importance of connecting
with the interests of their students, seeking and enhancing the transferability of
learning.