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      Influence Factors of the Pharmacokinetics of Herbal Resourced Compounds in Clinical Practice

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          Abstract

          Herbal medicines have been used to prevent and cure diseases in eastern countries for thousands of years. In recent decades, these phytotherapies are becoming more and more popular in the West. As being nature-derived is the essential attribute of herbal medicines, people believe that taking them for diseases treatment is safe enough and has no side-effects. However, the efficacy of herbal resourced compounds (HRC) depends on the multiple constituents absorbed in the body and their pharmacokinetics. Thus, many factors will influence the clinical practice of HRC, i.e., their absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME). Among these factors, herb-drug interaction has been widely discussed, as these compounds may share the same drug-metabolizing enzymes and drug transporters. Meanwhile there are many other potential factors that can also change the ADME of HRC, including herb pretreatment, herb-herb interactions, pathological status, gender, age of patient, and chemical and physical modification of certain ingredients. With the aim of ensuring the efficacy of HRC and minimizing their clinical risks, this review provides and discusses the influence factors and artificial improvement of the pharmacokinetics of HRC.

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          Bioavailability of the Polyphenols: Status and Controversies

          The current interest in polyphenols has been driven primarily by epidemiological studies. However, to establish conclusive evidence for the effectiveness of dietary polyphenols in disease prevention, it is useful to better define the bioavailability of the polyphenols, so that their biological activity can be evaluated. The bioavailability appears to differ greatly among the various phenolic compounds, and the most abundant ones in our diet are not necessarily those that have the best bioavailability profile. In the present review, we focus on the factors influencing the bioavailability of the polyphenols. Moreover, a critical overview on the difficulties and the controversies of the studies on the bioavailability is discussed.
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            Acupuncture: neuropeptide release produced by electrical stimulation of different frequencies

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              State of the art in PEGylation: the great versatility achieved after forty years of research.

              In the recent years, protein PEGylation has become an established and highly refined technology by moving forward from initial simple random coupling approaches based on conjugation at the level of lysine ε-amino group. Nevertheless, amino PEGylation is still yielding important conjugates, currently in clinical practice, where the degree of homogeneity was improved by optimizing the reaction conditions and implementing the purification processes. However, the current research is mainly focused on methods of site-selective PEGylation that allow the obtainment of a single isomer, thus highly increasing the degree of homogeneity and the preservation of bioactivity. Protein N-terminus and free cysteines were the first sites exploited for selective PEGylation but currently further positions can be addressed thanks to approaches like bridging PEGylation (disulphide bridges), enzymatic PEGylation (glutamines and C-terminus) and glycoPEGylation (sites of O- and N-glycosylation or the glycans of a glycoprotein). Furthermore, by combining the tools of genetic engineering with specific PEGylation approaches, the polymer can be basically coupled at any position on the protein surface, owing to the substitution of a properly chosen amino acid in the sequence with a natural or unnatural amino acid bearing an orthogonal reactive group. On the other hand, PEGylation has not achieved the same success in the delivery of small drugs, despite the large interest and several studies in this field. Targeted conjugates and PEGs for combination therapy might represent the promising answers for the so far unmet needs of PEG as carrier of small drugs. This review presents a thorough panorama of recent advances in the field of PEGylation. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Evid Based Complement Alternat Med
                Evid Based Complement Alternat Med
                ECAM
                Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine : eCAM
                Hindawi
                1741-427X
                1741-4288
                2019
                5 March 2019
                5 March 2019
                : 2019
                : 1983780
                Affiliations
                1Department of Pharmacy, Luoyang Orthopedic Hospital of Henan Province, Orthopedic Hospital of Henan Province, Luoyang, China
                2Institute of Integrative Medicine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
                Author notes

                Academic Editor: Giuseppe Caminiti

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6172-1328
                Article
                10.1155/2019/1983780
                6425497
                30949215
                a82e2335-5ddc-4103-b21a-1cd1036747c4
                Copyright © 2019 Shi Sun et al.

                This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                : 14 November 2018
                : 15 January 2019
                Funding
                Funded by: National Natural Science Foundation of China
                Award ID: 81703678
                Funded by: Basic Scientific Research Projects of Colleges and Universities
                Award ID: LQ2017041
                Funded by: Scientific Research Project for Traditional Chinese Medicine of Henan Province
                Award ID: 2017ZY1001
                Categories
                Review Article

                Complementary & Alternative medicine
                Complementary & Alternative medicine

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