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      Pathophysiology of acute meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae and adjunctive therapy approaches Translated title: Fisiopatologia da meningite ocasionada pelo Streptococcus pneumoniae e novas possibilidades terapêuticas adjuvantes

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          Abstract

          Pneumococcal meningitis is a life-threatening disease characterized by an acute purulent infection affecting piamater, arachnoid and the subarachnoid space. The intense inflammatory host's response is potentially fatal and contributes to the neurological sequelae. Streptococcus pneumoniae colonizes the nasopharynx, followed by bacteremia, microbial invasion and blood-brain barrier traversal. S. pneumoniae is recognized by antigen-presenting cells through the binding of Toll-like receptors inducing the activation of factor nuclear kappa B or mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways and subsequent up-regulation of lymphocyte populations and expression of numerous proteins involved in inflammation and immune response. Many brain cells can produce cytokines, chemokines and others pro-inflammatory molecules in response to bacteria stimuli, as consequence, polymorphonuclear are attracted, activated and released in large amounts of superoxide anion and nitric oxide, leading to the peroxynitrite formation, generating oxidative stress. This cascade leads to lipid peroxidation, mitochondrial damage, blood-brain barrier breakdown contributing to cell injury during pneumococcal meningitis.

          Translated abstract

          A meningite pneumocócica é doença potencialmente fatal caracterizada por infecção aguda purulenta que afeta a pia-máter, a aracnoide e o espaço subaracnoide. A resposta inflamatória do hospedeiro é potencialmente fatal e contribui para as sequelas neurológicas. O processo inicia-se com a colonização da nasofaringe pelo Streptococcus pneumoniae, seguida de invasão, bacteremia e passagem através da barreira hematoencefálica. O S. pneumoniae é reconhecido por células apresentadoras de antígenos através da ligação aos receptores Toll-like. Isto induz a ativação do fator nuclear kappa B ou proteína quinase ativada por mitógenos. Muitas células cerebrais também podem produzir citocinas, quimiocinas e outras moléculas pró-inflamatórias em resposta aos estímulos bacterianos. Como consequência, são atraídos polimorfonucleares, ocorrendo a liberação de grandes quantidades de ânion superóxido e óxido nítrico, o que leva à formação de peroxinitrito e ocasiona o estresse oxidativo. Esta cascata pró-inflamatória leva à peroxidação lipídica, a danos mitocondriais e à ruptura da barreira hematoencefálica, contribuindo para o dano celular em meningite pneumocócica.

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          Most cited references77

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          Mechanisms of microbial traversal of the blood-brain barrier.

          Kwang Kim (2008)
          Central nervous system (CNS) infections continue to be an important cause of morbidity and mortality. Microbial invasion and traversal of the blood-brain barrier is a prerequisite for CNS infections. Pathogens can cross the blood-brain barrier transcellularly, paracellularly and/or in infected phagocytes (the so-called Trojan-horse mechanism). Consequently, pathogens can cause blood-brain barrier dysfunction, including increased permeability, pleocytosis and encephalopathy. A more complete understanding of the microbial-host interactions that are involved in microbial traversal of the blood-brain barrier and the associated barrier dysfunction should help to develop new strategies to prevent CNS infections.
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            Cytokines and the brain: implications for clinical psychiatry.

            This article reviews recent developments in cytokine biology that are relevant to clinical psychiatry. The authors reviewed English-language literature of the last 15 years that pertains to the biology of cytokines with emphasis on central nervous system effects in general and psychiatric disorders in particular. Growing evidence suggests that, in addition to providing communication between immune cells, specific cytokines play a role in signaling the brain to produce neurochemical, neuroendocrine, neuroimmune, and behavioral changes. This signaling may be part of a generalized, comprehensive mechanism to mobilize resources in the face of physical and/or psychological stress and to maintain homeostasis. The clinical implications of these findings are far-reaching and include a possible role for cytokines in the pathophysiology of specific psychiatric disorders such as major depression, schizophrenia, and Alzheimer's disease. The effects of cytokines in the central nervous system may provide a possible mechanism for the "sickness behavior" of patients with severe infection or cancer, as well as for the neuropsychiatric adverse effects of treatment with interferons and interleukins. A better understanding of the role of cytokines in various brain activities will enhance knowledge of specific psychobiological mechanisms in health and disease and provide opportunities for novel treatment interventions.
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              Pathogenesis and pathophysiology of pneumococcal meningitis.

              Until the introduction of antibiotics in the 1930s and 1940s, acute bacterial meningitis was fatal in most cases. Since then it has become curable with a variable mortality and morbidity rate for individual pathogens and patients. Neuropathological and clinical studies have shown that a fatal outcome of the disease is often due to central nervous system (CNS) complications including cerebrovascular involvement, brain oedema formation, and hydrocephalus resulting in increased intracranial pressure and seizure activity. During recent years, experimental studies with animal models have substantially increased our knowledge of the interactions of bacterial pathogens with mammalian cells and their entry into the CNS, and the complex pathophysiological mechanisms of brain dysfunction during acute bacterial meningitis. There is now a substantial body of evidence that cytokines, chemokines, proteolytic enzymes, and oxidants are involved in the inflammatory cascade that leads to tissue destruction in bacterial meningitis. Genetic targeting and/or pharmacological blockade of these pathways was beneficial in experimental bacterial meningitis. Apart from dexamethasone, these treatment strategies hold major promise for the adjunctive therapy of acute bacterial meningitis in clinical practice.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Journal
                anp
                Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria
                Arq. Neuro-Psiquiatr.
                Academia Brasileira de Neurologia - ABNEURO (São Paulo )
                1678-4227
                May 2012
                : 70
                : 5
                : 366-372
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense Brazil
                [2 ] Universidade Federal do Paraná Brazil
                Article
                S0004-282X2012000500011
                10.1590/S0004-282X2012000500011
                ab4daab8-3741-4df7-b913-26558a6b8307

                http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

                History
                Product

                SciELO Brazil

                Self URI (journal page): http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_serial&pid=0004-282X&lng=en
                Categories
                NEUROSCIENCES
                PSYCHIATRY

                Neurosciences,Clinical Psychology & Psychiatry
                Streptococcus pneumoniae,meningitis,cytokines,chemokines,oxidative stress,meningite,citocinas,quimiocinas,estresse oxidativo

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