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      Bunyavirus-Vector Interactions

      review-article
      Author(s): 1 , 1 , 2 , *
      Editor(s):
      Publication date (Electronic):
      Journal: Viruses
      Publisher: MDPI
      Keywords: bunyavirus, Aedes mosquito, Culex mosquito, tick, hemorrhagic fever

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          Abstract

          The Bunyaviridae family is comprised of more than 350 viruses, of which many within the Hantavirus, Orthobunyavirus, Nairovirus, Tospovirus, and Phlebovirus genera are significant human or agricultural pathogens. The viruses within the Orthobunyavirus, Nairovirus, and Phlebovirus genera are transmitted by hematophagous arthropods, such as mosquitoes, midges, flies, and ticks, and their associated arthropods not only serve as vectors but also as virus reservoirs in many cases. This review presents an overview of several important emerging or re-emerging bunyaviruses and describes what is known about bunyavirus-vector interactions based on epidemiological, ultrastructural, and genetic studies of members of this virus family.

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          Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever.

          Chris A. Whitehouse (2004)
          Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a tick-borne disease caused by the arbovirus Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), which is a member of the Nairovirus genus (family Bunyaviridae). CCHF was first recognized during a large outbreak among agricultural workers in the mid-1940s in the Crimean peninsula. The disease now occurs sporadically throughout much of Africa, Asia, and Europe and results in an approximately 30% fatality rate. After a short incubation period, CCHF is characterized by a sudden onset of high fever, chills, severe headache, dizziness, back, and abdominal pains. Additional symptoms can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, neuropsychiatric, and cardiovascular changes. In severe cases, hemorrhagic manifestations, ranging from petechiae to large areas of ecchymosis, develop. Numerous genera of ixodid ticks serve both as vector and reservoir for CCHFV; however, ticks in the genus Hyalomma are particularly important to the ecology of this virus. In fact, occurrence of CCHF closely approximates the known world distribution of Hyalomma spp. ticks. Therefore, exposure to these ticks represents a major risk factor for contracting disease; however, other important risk factors are known and are discussed in this review. In recent years, major advances in the molecular detection of CCHFV, particularly the use of real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), in clinical and tick samples have allowed for both rapid diagnosis of disease and molecular epidemiology studies. Treatment options for CCHF are limited. Immunotherapy and ribavirin have been tried with varying degrees of success during sporadic outbreaks of disease, but no case-controlled trials have been conducted. Consequently, there is currently no antiviral treatment for CCHF approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). However, renewed interested in CCHFV, as well as increased knowledge of its basic biology, may lead to improved therapies in the future. This article reviews the history, epidemiology, ecology, clinical features, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of CCHF. In addition, recent advances in the molecular biology of CCHFV are presented, and issues related to its possible use as a bioterrorism agent are discussed.
          Article 0 comments Cited 193 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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            Rift Valley fever virus (family Bunyaviridae, genus Phlebovirus). Isolations from Diptera collected during an inter-epizootic period in Kenya.

            K Linthicum, Kenneth J. Linthicum, A Kairo … (1985)
            A total of 134 876 Diptera collected in Kenya during a 3-year period were tested in 3383 pools for Rift Valley fever (RVF) virus. Nineteen pools of unengorged mosquitoes were found positive for RVF. All isolations were made from specimens collected at or near the naturally or artificially flooded grassland depressions that serve as the developmental sites for the immature stages of many mosquito species. The isolation of virus from adult male and female A. lineatopennis which had been reared from field-collected larvae and pupae suggests that transovarial transmission of the virus occurs in this species.
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              The enhancement of arbovirus transmission and disease by mosquito saliva is associated with modulation of the host immune response.

              Bradley S. Schneider, Stephen Higgs (2008)
              Arthropod-borne (arbo-) viruses have emerged as a major human health concern. Viruses transmitted by mosquitoes are the cause of the most serious and widespread arbovirus diseases worldwide and are ubiquitous in both feral and urban settings. Arboviruses, including dengue and West Nile virus, are injected into vertebrates within mosquito saliva during mosquito feeding. Mosquito saliva contains anti-haemostatic, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory molecules that facilitate the acquisition of a blood meal. Collectively, studies investigating the effects of mosquito saliva on the vertebrate immune response suggest that at high concentrations salivary proteins are immmunosuppressive, whereas lower concentrations modulate the immune response; specifically, T(H)1 and antiviral cytokines are downregulated, while T(H)2 cytokines are unaffected or amplified. As a consequence, mosquito saliva can impair the antiviral immune response, thus affecting viral infectiousness and host survival. Mounting evidence suggests that this is a mechanism whereby arbovirus pathogenicity is enhanced. In a range of disease models, including various hosts, mosquito species and arthropod-borne viruses, mosquito saliva and/or feeding is associated with a potentiation of virus infection. Compared with arbovirus infection initiated in the absence of the mosquito or its saliva, infection via mosquito saliva leads to an increase in virus transmission, host susceptibility, viraemia, disease progression and mortality.
              Article 0 comments Cited 107 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Rollie Clem: Role: External Editor
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Viruses
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Viruses
                Journal ID (publisher-id): viruses
                Title: Viruses
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 1999-4915
                Publication date (Electronic): 13 November 2014
                Publication date Collection: November 2014
                Volume: 6
                Issue: 11
                Pages: 4373-4397
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA; E-Mail: kmhorne@ 123456ksu.edu
                [2 ]Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
                Author notes
                [* ]Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: dlvanlan@ 123456vet.ksu.edu ; Tel.: +1-785-532-1369; Fax: +1-785-532-0973.
                Article
                Publisher ID: viruses-06-04373
                DOI: 10.3390/v6114373
                PMC ID: 4246228
                PubMed ID: 25402172
                SO-VID: ac011d47-19a2-4fc5-9c57-fdb10b953eca
                Copyright © © 2014 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
                License:

                This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 10 September 2014
                Date revision received : 30 October 2014
                Date accepted : 04 November 2014
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Microbiology & Virology
                Keywords: bunyavirus,aedes mosquito,culex mosquito,tick,hemorrhagic fever
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Microbiology & Virology
                Keywords: bunyavirus, aedes mosquito, culex mosquito, tick, hemorrhagic fever

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