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      La pica durante el embarazo: un trastorno frecuentemente subestimado Translated title: Pica during pregnancy: a frequently underestimated problem

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          Abstract

          RESUMEN. La pica se manifiesta por la ingesta persistente y compulsiva de sustancias no nutritivas como tierra, arcilla, tiza, jabón y hielo. Las formas más comunes son la geofagia o consumo de tierra y la pagofagia o consumo de hielo. La descripción de este peculiar fenómeno se remonta a la época de la civilización greco-romana. Su presencia durante el embarazo es generalmente poco estudiada o subestimada, los datos publicados indican que puede manifestarse con una prevalencia que varía del 8% al 65%. Las cifras provenientes de investigaciones en América Latina refieren una prevalencia del 23% al 44%. No está claro aún cuáles son las causas que predisponen a este trastorno, sin embargo es frecuente su presencia en gestantes que presentan anemia o un estado nutricional deficiente con respecto al hierro. Su diagnóstico, que sólo consiste en interrogar sobre esta práctica a las gestantes, es frecuentemente ignorado durante la atención prenatal, probablemente debido al desconocimiento por parte del equipo de salud respecto a este trastorno. La identificación de la práctica de pica durante el embarazo contribuirá a detectar un grupo de gestantes con riesgo nutricional, en quienes sea necesario implementar estrategias tanto de evaluación como de educación nutricional.

          Translated abstract

          SUMMARY. Pica is the compulsive intake of non-nutritive substances such as earth, clay, chalk, soap and ice. The most common forms of pica are geophagia or the intake of earth and pagophagia or the intake of ice. The description of this peculiar phenomenon dates back to the Greco-Roman civilization. Its prevalence during pregnancy is generally underestimated. Published data reveal a prevalence of between 8% and 65%. Investigations from Latin America indicate a prevalence of 23% to 44%. It is not clear yet which are the causes that predispose to pica, but they are frequently associated with anemia or iron deficiency during pregnancy. Its diagnosis, which only consists in questioning pregnant women, is generally omitted during prenatal care, probably because health professionals have no knowledge about this disorder. The identification of pica in pregnant women could contribute to the detection of a risk group where it is necessary to implement strategies as regards both the evaluation and the nutritional education.

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          Dietary factors influencing zinc absorption.

          Marginal zinc deficiency and suboptimal zinc status have been recognized in many groups of the population in both less developed and industrialized countries. Although the cause in some cases may be inadequate dietary intake of zinc, inhibitors of zinc absorption are most likely the most common causative factor. Phytate, which is present in staple foods like cereals, corn and rice, has a strong negative effect on zinc absorption from composite meals. Inositol hexaphosphates and pentaphosphates are the phytate forms that exert these negative effects, whereas the lower phosphates have no or little effect on zinc absorption. The removal or reduction of phytate by enzyme (phytase) treatment, precipitation methods, germination, fermentation or plant breeding/genetic engineering markedly improves zinc absorption. Iron can have a negative effect on zinc absorption, if given together in a supplement, whereas no effect is observed when the same amounts are present in a meal as fortificants. Cadmium, which is increasing in the environment, also inhibits zinc absorption. The amount of protein in a meal has a positive effect on zinc absorption, but individual proteins may act differently; e.g., casein has a modest inhibitory effect of zinc absorption compared with other protein sources. Amino acids, such as histidine and methionine, and other low-molecular-weight ions, such as EDTA and organic acids (e.g., citrate), are known to have a positive effect on zinc absorption and have been used for zinc supplements. Knowledge about dietary factors that inhibit zinc absorption and about ways to overcome or remove these factors is essential when designing strategies to improve the zinc nutrition of vulnerable groups.
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            Human zinc deficiency.

            M Hambidge (2000)
            The objective of this paper is to provide a current overview of the significance of zinc in human nutrition. To achieve this, the following issues are addressed: (1) the biochemistry and biology of zinc in the context of their relevance to zinc in human nutrition and to our understanding of the complexity and practical importance of human zinc deficiency; (2) the history of our understanding of human zinc deficiency with an emphasis both on its brevity and on notable recent progress; (3) the clinical spectrum of severe zinc deficiency; (4) the lack of ideal biomarkers for milder zinc deficiency states, with the consequent dependence on randomized, placebo-controlled intervention studies to ascertain their prevalence and clinical consequences, including growth delay, diarrhea, pneumonia, other infections, disturbed neuropsychological performance and abnormalities of fetal development; (5) the public health significance of human zinc deficiency in the developing world; (6) reasons for concern and unanswered questions about zinc nutriture in the United States; (7) the need for better understanding of human zinc metabolism and homeostasis (including its limitations) at a molecular, cellular, organ-system and whole body level and of factors that affect zinc bioavailability; and (8) potential strategies for the prevention and management of human zinc deficiency. This review concludes with an emphasis on the immediate need for expanded research in directions that have become increasingly well demarcated and impelling as a result of recent progress, which is summarized in this overview.
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              Determinants of maternal zinc status during pregnancy.

              J. King (2000)
              Zinc deficiency in pregnant experimental animals limits fetal growth and, if severe, causes teratogenic anomalies. Although the data from human studies are not consistent, similar outcomes have been observed and were associated with poor maternal zinc status. This paper reviews humans studies of zinc status and pregnancy outcome, describes the physiologic adjustments in zinc utilization during pregnancy to meet fetal needs while maintaining maternal status, and identifies dietary and environmental conditions that may override those physiologic adjustments and put the health of the mother and fetus at risk. Adjustments in intestinal zinc absorption appear to be the primary means by which zinc retention is increased to meet fetal demands. However, transfer of sufficient zinc to the fetus is dependent on maintenance of normal maternal serum zinc concentrations. Conditions that could interfere with zinc absorption include intake of cereal-based diets that are high in phytate, high intakes of supplemental iron, or any gastrointestinal disease. Conditions that may alter maternal plasma zinc concentrations and the transport of zinc to the fetus include smoking, alcohol abuse, and an acute stress response to infection or trauma. Supplemental zinc may be prudent for women with poor gastrointestinal function or with any of these conditions during pregnancy.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Journal
                alan
                Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición
                ALAN
                Sociedad Latinoamericana de Nutrición (Caracas )
                0004-0622
                March 2004
                : 54
                : 1
                : 17-24
                Article
                S0004-06222004000100004
                ad549346-ec33-45a7-a917-017f28fdafeb

                http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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                SciELO Venezuela

                Self URI (journal page): http://www.scielo.org.ve/scielo.php?script=sci_serial&pid=0004-0622&lng=en
                Categories
                NUTRITION & DIETETICS

                Nutrition & Dietetics
                Pica,geophagia,pagophagia,anemia,pregnancy,geofagia,pagofagia,embarazo
                Nutrition & Dietetics
                Pica, geophagia, pagophagia, anemia, pregnancy, geofagia, pagofagia, embarazo

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