Tetracycline antibiotics as precursors of dichloroacetamide and other disinfection byproducts during chlorination and chloramination

Abstract

Pollution of natural water and even source water with pharmaceuticals is problematic worldwide and raises concern about the possibility of disinfection byproduct (DBP) formation during subsequent water treatment. In this study, the formation of DBPs, especially dichloroacetamide (DCAcAm), was investigated during chlorination and chloramination of tetracyclines, which are a class of broad-spectrum antibiotics. DBPs including DCAcAm were formed during chlorination and chloramination of tetracycline (TC). Although the concentrations and theoretical cytotoxicity of the DBPs formed from TC were affected by the contact time, disinfectant dose, and pH, DCAcAm was the main contributor determining the yields and cytotoxicity of the measured DBPs. The DCAcAm yields from four tetracycline antibiotics ranged from 0.43% to 54.26% for chlorination. For chloramination, the DCAcAm yields reached 44.57%, and the nitrogen in DCAcAm mainly came from tetracycline antibiotics rather than chloramines. ClO ₂ pre-oxidation and UV photolysis decreased DCAcAm formation during chlorination and chloramination of TC. The high yields observed in this study suggest that tetracycline antibiotics are possible precursors of DCAcAm.

Graphical abstract

Highlights

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  Tetracycline antibiotics had high DCAcAm yields during chlor(am)ination.

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  DCAcAm was the major contributor to the DBP cytotoxicity from chloramination of TC.

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  Nitrogen in DCAcAm mainly came from tetracyclines during chloramination.

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  ClO ₂ pre-oxidation decreased DCAcAm formation during chlor(am)ination of TC.