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      An Analysis of Individual and Contextual-Level Disparities in Screening, Treatment, and Outcomes for Hepatocellular Carcinoma

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          Abstract

          Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary malignancy of the liver and affects patients of all genders, races, ethnicities, and socioeconomic status. While the causes of HCC are numerous, the primary etiology is cirrhosis from alcohol and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in the United States and from infectious agents such as Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C in the developing world. In patients at-risk for developing HCC, screening is recommended with ultrasound imaging and alpha fetoprotein laboratory tests. In socioeconomically vulnerable patients, however, individual-level barriers (eg, insurance status) and contextual-level disparities (eg, health facilities) may not be readily available, thus limiting screening. Additional challenges faced by racial/ethnic minorities can further challenge the spectrum of HCC care and lead to inadequate screening, delayed diagnosis, and unequal access to treatment. Efforts to improve these multilevel factors that lead to screening and treatment disparities are critical to overcoming challenges. Providing health insurance to those without access, improving societal challenges that confine patients to a lower socioeconomic status, and reducing challenges to seeking healthcare can decrease the morbidity and mortality of these patients. Additionally, engaging with communities and allowing them to collaborate in their own healthcare can also help to attenuate these inequities. Through collaborative multidisciplinary change, we can make progress in tackling disparities in vulnerable populations to achieve health equity

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          Most cited references127

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          Diagnosis, Staging, and Management of Hepatocellular Carcinoma: 2018 Practice Guidance by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases

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            The Social Determinants of Health: It's Time to Consider the Causes of the Causes

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              COVID-19, school closures, and child poverty: a social crisis in the making

              While coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) continues to spread across the globe, many countries have decided to close schools as part of a physical distancing policy to slow transmission and ease the burden on health systems. The UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization estimates that 138 countries have closed schools nationwide, and several other countries have implemented regional or local closures. These school closures are affecting the education of 80% of children worldwide. Although scientific debate is ongoing with regard to the effectiveness of school closures on virus transmission, 1 the fact that schools are closed for a long period of time could have detrimental social and health consequences for children living in poverty, and are likely to exacerbate existing inequalities. We discuss two mechanisms through which school closures will affect poor children in the USA and Europe. First, school closures will exacerbate food insecurity. For many students living in poverty, schools are not only a place for learning but also for eating healthily. Research shows that school lunch is associated with improvements in academic performance, whereas food insecurity (including irregular or unhealthy diets) is associated with low educational attainment and substantial risks to the physical health and mental wellbeing of children.2, 3 The number of children facing food insecurity is substantial. According to Eurostat, 6·6% of households with children in the European Union—5·5% in the UK—cannot afford a meal with meat, fish, or a vegetarian equivalent every second day. Comparable estimates in the USA suggest that 14% of households with children had food insecurity in 2018. 4 Second, research suggests that non-school factors are a primary source of inequalities in educational outcomes. The gap in mathematical and literacy skills between children from lower and higher socioeconomic backgrounds often widens during school holiday periods. 5 The summer holiday in most American schools is estimated to contribute to a loss in academic achievement equivalent to one month of education for children with low socioeconomic status; however, this effect is not observed for children with higher socioeconomic status. 6 Summer holidays are also associated with a setback in mental health and wellbeing for children and adolescents. 7 Although the current school closures differ from summer holidays in that learning is expected to continue digitally, the closures are likely to widen the learning gap between children from lower-income and higher-income families. Children from low-income households live in conditions that make home schooling difficult. Online learning environments usually require computers and a reliable internet connection. In Europe, a substantial number of children live in homes in which they have no suitable place to do homework (5%) or have no access to the internet (6·9%). Furthermore, 10·2% of children live in homes that cannot be heated adequately, 7·2% have no access to outdoor leisure facilities, and 5% do not have access to books at the appropriate reading level. 8 In the USA, an estimated 2·5% of students in public schools do not live in a stable residence. In New York city, where a large proportion of COVID-19 cases in the USA have been observed, one in ten students were homeless or experienced severe housing instability during the previous school year. 9 While learning might continue unimpeded for children from higher income households, children from lower income households are likely to struggle to complete homework and online courses because of their precarious housing situations. Beyond the educational challenges, however, low-income families face an additional threat: the ongoing pandemic is expected to lead to a severe economic recession. Previous recessions have exacerbated levels of child poverty with long-lasting consequences for children's health, wellbeing, and learning outcomes. 10 Policy makers, school administrators, and other local officials thus face two challenges. First, the immediate nutrition and learning needs of poor students must continue to be addressed. The continuation of school-provided meals is essential in preventing widespread food insecurity. Teachers should also consider how to adapt their learning materials for students without access to wireless internet, a computer, or a place to study. Second, local and national legislators must prepare for the considerable challenges that await when the pandemic subsides. At the local level, an adequate response must include targeted education and material support for children from low-income households to begin to close the learning gap that is likely to have occurred. From a policy perspective, legislators should consider providing regular income support for households with children during the impending economic crisis to prevent a deepening and broadening of child poverty. Without such action, the current health crisis could become a social crisis that will have long-lasting consequences for children in low-income families.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                J Hepatocell Carcinoma
                J Hepatocell Carcinoma
                jhc
                jhepc
                Journal of Hepatocellular Carcinoma
                Dove
                2253-5969
                28 September 2021
                2021
                : 8
                : 1209-1219
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami, FL, USA
                Author notes
                Correspondence: Neha Goel Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center , 1120 NW 14th Street, Suite 410, Miami, Fl, 33136, USATel +1 630 806-1440Fax +1 305 243-4907 Email neha.goel@med.Miami.edu
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4540-3658
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0357-4109
                Article
                284430
                10.2147/JHC.S284430
                8487287
                b0455242-96b2-4673-b312-632e0ad56da5
                © 2021 Kronenfeld and Goel.

                This work is published and licensed by Dove Medical Press Limited. The full terms of this license are available at https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/). By accessing the work you hereby accept the Terms. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further permission from Dove Medical Press Limited, provided the work is properly attributed. For permission for commercial use of this work, please see paragraphs 4.2 and 5 of our Terms ( https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php).

                History
                : 01 July 2021
                : 02 September 2021
                Page count
                Figures: 1, References: 137, Pages: 11
                Funding
                Funded by: Joshua P. Kronenfeld;
                Funded by: Neha Goel;
                Joshua P. Kronenfeld: NIH T32CA211034; Neha Goel: NIH K12CA226330.
                Categories
                Review

                hepatocellular carcinoma,healthcare disparities,social determinants of health

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