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      Immediate neurophysiological effects of transcranial electrical stimulation

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          Abstract

          Noninvasive brain stimulation techniques are used in experimental and clinical fields for their potential effects on brain network dynamics and behavior. Transcranial electrical stimulation (TES), including transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS), has gained popularity because of its convenience and potential as a chronic therapy. However, a mechanistic understanding of TES has lagged behind its widespread adoption. Here, we review data and modelling on the immediate neurophysiological effects of TES in vitro as well as in vivo in both humans and other animals. While it remains unclear how typical TES protocols affect neural activity, we propose that validated models of current flow should inform study design and artifacts should be carefully excluded during signal recording and analysis. Potential indirect effects of TES (e.g., peripheral stimulation) should be investigated in more detail and further explored in experimental designs. We also consider how novel technologies may stimulate the next generation of TES experiments and devices, thus enhancing validity, specificity, and reproducibility.

          Abstract

          Transcranial electrical stimulation techniques, such as tDCS and tACS, are popular tools for neuroscience and clinical therapy, but how low-intensity current might modulate brain activity remains unclear. In this review, the authors review the evidence on mechanisms of transcranial electrical stimulation.

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          Most cited references127

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          The origin of extracellular fields and currents--EEG, ECoG, LFP and spikes.

          Neuronal activity in the brain gives rise to transmembrane currents that can be measured in the extracellular medium. Although the major contributor of the extracellular signal is the synaptic transmembrane current, other sources--including Na(+) and Ca(2+) spikes, ionic fluxes through voltage- and ligand-gated channels, and intrinsic membrane oscillations--can substantially shape the extracellular field. High-density recordings of field activity in animals and subdural grid recordings in humans, combined with recently developed data processing tools and computational modelling, can provide insight into the cooperative behaviour of neurons, their average synaptic input and their spiking output, and can increase our understanding of how these processes contribute to the extracellular signal.
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            Excitability changes induced in the human motor cortex by weak transcranial direct current stimulation

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              Conscious, preconscious, and subliminal processing: a testable taxonomy.

              Of the many brain events evoked by a visual stimulus, which are specifically associated with conscious perception, and which merely reflect non-conscious processing? Several recent neuroimaging studies have contrasted conscious and non-conscious visual processing, but their results appear inconsistent. Some support a correlation of conscious perception with early occipital events, others with late parieto-frontal activity. Here we attempt to make sense of these dissenting results. On the basis of the global neuronal workspace hypothesis, we propose a taxonomy that distinguishes between vigilance and access to conscious report, as well as between subliminal, preconscious and conscious processing. We suggest that these distinctions map onto different neural mechanisms, and that conscious perception is systematically associated with surges of parieto-frontal activity causing top-down amplification.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                anli.liu@nyumc.org
                gyorgy.buzsaki@nyumc.org
                Journal
                Nat Commun
                Nat Commun
                Nature Communications
                Nature Publishing Group UK (London )
                2041-1723
                30 November 2018
                30 November 2018
                2018
                : 9
                : 5092
                Affiliations
                [1 ]ISNI 0000 0004 1936 8753, GRID grid.137628.9, New York University Comprehensive Epilepsy Center, ; 223 34th Street, New York, NY 10016 USA
                [2 ]ISNI 0000 0004 1936 8753, GRID grid.137628.9, Department of Neurology, , NYU Langone Health, ; 222 East 41st Street, 14th Floor, New York, NY 10016 USA
                [3 ]ISNI 0000 0001 1016 9625, GRID grid.9008.1, MTA-SZTE ‘Momentum’ Oscillatory Neuronal Networks Research Group, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, , University of Szeged, ; 10 Dom sq., Szeged, H-6720 Hungary
                [4 ]ISNI 0000 0004 1936 8753, GRID grid.137628.9, New York University Neuroscience Institute, ; 435 East 30th Street, New York, NY 10016 USA
                [5 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2264 7145, GRID grid.254250.4, Department of Biomedical Engineering, , City College of New York, ; 160 Convent Ave, New York, NY 10031 USA
                [6 ]ISNI 0000 0004 1936 8649, GRID grid.14709.3b, Montreal Neurological Institute, , McGill University, ; Montreal, QC H3A 2B4 Canada
                [7 ]Department of Biomedical Engineering of Minnesota, 312 Church St. SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455 USA
                [8 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2284 9943, GRID grid.257060.6, Department of Neurosurgery, , Hofstra Northwell School of Medicine, ; 611 Northern Blvd, Great Neck, NY 11021 USA
                [9 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2284 9943, GRID grid.257060.6, Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, , Hofstra Northwell School of Medicine, ; 350 Community Drive, Manhasset, NY 11030 USA
                [10 ]ISNI 0000 0004 1936 8796, GRID grid.430387.b, Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, , Rutgers University, ; 197 University Avenue, Newark, NJ 07102 USA
                [11 ]ISNI 0000 0004 1795 8610, GRID grid.461782.e, Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, ; Grüneburgweg 14, 60322 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1118-981X
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0997-3266
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1837-687X
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0084-8530
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4667-816X
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3100-4800
                Article
                7233
                10.1038/s41467-018-07233-7
                6269428
                30504921
                b195aee2-4c1d-4180-a97a-4917355d1739
                © The Author(s) 2018

                Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

                History
                : 26 April 2018
                : 18 October 2018
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