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      Tuning riboflavin derivatives for photodynamic inactivation of pathogens

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          Abstract

          The development of effective pathogen reduction strategies is required due to the rise in antibiotic-resistant bacteria and zoonotic viral pandemics. Photodynamic inactivation (PDI) of bacteria and viruses is a potent reduction strategy that bypasses typical resistance mechanisms. Naturally occurring riboflavin has been widely used in PDI applications due to efficient light-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) release. By rational design of its core structure to alter (photo)physical properties, we obtained derivatives capable of outperforming riboflavin’s visible light-induced PDI against E. coli and a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate, revealing functional group dependency for each pathogen. Bacterial PDI was influenced mainly by guanidino substitution, whereas viral PDI increased through bromination of the flavin. These observations were related to enhanced uptake and ROS-specific nucleic acid cleavage mechanisms. Trends in the derivatives’ toxicity towards human fibroblast cells were also investigated to assess viable therapeutic derivatives and help guide further design of PDI agents to combat pathogenic organisms.

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          Most cited references53

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          A SIMPLE METHOD OF ESTIMATING FIFTY PER CENT ENDPOINTS12

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            Coronavirus in water environments: Occurrence, persistence and concentration methods - A scoping review

            Coronaviruses (CoV) are a large family of viruses causing a spectrum of disease ranging from the common cold to more severe diseases as Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS-CoV) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS-CoV). The recent outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a public health emergency worldwide. SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19, is spread by human-to-human transmission via droplets or direct contact. However, since SARS-CoV-2 (as well as other coronaviruses) has been found in the fecal samples and anal swabs of some patients, the possibility of fecal-oral (including waterborne) transmission need to be investigated and clarified. This scoping review was conducted to summarize research data on CoV in water environments. A literature survey was conducted using the electronic databases PubMed, EMBASE, and Web Science Core Collection. This comprehensive research yielded more than 3000 records, but only 12 met the criteria and were included and discussed in this review. In detail, the review captured relevant studies investigating three main areas: 1) CoV persistence/survival in waters; 2) CoV occurrence in water environments; 3) methods for recovery of CoV from waters. The data available suggest that: i) CoV seems to have a low stability in the environment and is very sensitive to oxidants, like chlorine; ii) CoV appears to be inactivated significantly faster in water than non-enveloped human enteric viruses with known waterborne transmission; iii) temperature is an important factor influencing viral survival (the titer of infectious virus declines more rapidly at 23°C–25 °C than at 4 °C); iv) there is no current evidence that human coronaviruses are present in surface or ground waters or are transmitted through contaminated drinking-water; v) further research is needed to adapt to enveloped viruses the methods commonly used for sampling and concentration of enteric, non enveloped viruses from water environments. The evidence-based knowledge reported in this paper is useful to support risk analysis processes within the drinking and wastewater chain (i.e., water and sanitation safety planning) to protect human health from exposure to coronavirus through water.
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              Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy – what we know and what we don’t

              Considering increasing number of pathogens resistant towards commonly used antibiotics as well as antiseptics, there is a pressing need for antimicrobial approaches that are capable of inactivating pathogens efficiently without the risk of inducing resistances. In this regard, an alternative approach is the antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT). The antimicrobial effect of aPDT is based on the principle that visible light activates a per se non-toxic molecule, the so-called photosensitizer (PS), resulting in generation of reactive oxygen species that kill bacteria unselectively via an oxidative burst. During the last 10-20 years, there has been extensive in vitro research on novel PS as well as light sources, which is now to be translated into clinics. In this review, we aim to provide an overview about the history of aPDT, its fundamental photochemical and photophysical mechanisms as well as photosensitizers and light sources that are currently applied for aPDT in vitro. Furthermore, the potential of resistances towards aPDT is extensively discussed and implications for proper comparison of in vitro studies regarding aPDT as well as for potential application fields in clinical practice are given. Overall, this review shall provide an outlook on future research directions needed for successful translation of promising in vitro results in aPDT towards clinical practice.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                lf389@cam.ac.uk
                Journal
                Sci Rep
                Sci Rep
                Scientific Reports
                Nature Publishing Group UK (London )
                2045-2322
                21 April 2022
                21 April 2022
                2022
                : 12
                : 6580
                Affiliations
                GRID grid.5335.0, ISNI 0000000121885934, Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, , University of Cambridge, ; Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge, CB3 0AS UK
                Article
                10394
                10.1038/s41598-022-10394-7
                9022420
                b55fe6cd-04c8-4cee-ac00-8da2c6df15cf
                © The Author(s) 2022

                Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

                History
                : 6 January 2022
                : 28 March 2022
                Funding
                Funded by: FundRef http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000266, Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council;
                Award ID: EP/V029762/1
                Award ID: EP/V029762/1
                Award ID: EP/V029762/1
                Award ID: EP/V029762/1
                Award ID: EP/s009000/1
                Award ID: EP/L015889/1
                Award ID: EP/L015889/1
                Award ID: EP/L015889/1
                Award ID: EP/V029762/1
                Funded by: FundRef http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000275, Leverhulme Trust;
                Award ID: RPG-2019-266
                Award ID: RPG-2019-266
                Categories
                Article
                Custom metadata
                © The Author(s) 2022

                Uncategorized
                chemical synthesis,photochemistry,bacterial infection,viral infection
                Uncategorized
                chemical synthesis, photochemistry, bacterial infection, viral infection

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