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      Interplay between Interferon-Mediated Innate Immunity and Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus

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          Abstract

          Innate immunity is the first line of defense against viral infection, and in turn, viruses have evolved to evade host immune surveillance. As a result, viruses may persist in host and develop chronic infections. Type I interferons (IFN-α/β) are among the most potent antiviral cytokines triggered by viral infections. Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) is a disease of pigs that is characterized by negligible induction of type I IFNs and viral persistence for an extended period. For IFN production, RIG-I/MDA5 and JAK-STAT pathways are two major signaling pathways, and recent studies indicate that PRRS virus is armed to modulate type I IFN responses during infection. This review describes the viral strategies for modulation of type I IFN responses. At least three non–structural proteins (Nsp1, Nsp2, and Nsp11) and a structural protein (N nucleocapsid protein) have been identified and characterized to play roles in the IFN suppression and NF-κB pathways. Nsp’s are early proteins while N is a late protein, suggesting that additional signaling pathways may be involved in addition to the IFN pathway. The understanding of molecular bases for virus-mediated modulation of host innate immune signaling will help us design new generation vaccines and control PRRS.

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          Most cited references93

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          RIG-I-mediated antiviral responses to single-stranded RNA bearing 5'-phosphates.

          Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) produced during viral replication is believed to be the critical trigger for activation of antiviral immunity mediated by the RNA helicase enzymes retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) and melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (MDA5). We showed that influenza A virus infection does not generate dsRNA and that RIG-I is activated by viral genomic single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) bearing 5'-phosphates. This is blocked by the influenza protein nonstructured protein 1 (NS1), which is found in a complex with RIG-I in infected cells. These results identify RIG-I as a ssRNA sensor and potential target of viral immune evasion and suggest that its ability to sense 5'-phosphorylated RNA evolved in the innate immune system as a means of discriminating between self and nonself.
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            Interferons and viruses: an interplay between induction, signalling, antiviral responses and virus countermeasures.

            The interferon (IFN) system is an extremely powerful antiviral response that is capable of controlling most, if not all, virus infections in the absence of adaptive immunity. However, viruses can still replicate and cause disease in vivo, because they have some strategy for at least partially circumventing the IFN response. We reviewed this topic in 2000 [Goodbourn, S., Didcock, L. & Randall, R. E. (2000). J Gen Virol 81, 2341-2364] but, since then, a great deal has been discovered about the molecular mechanisms of the IFN response and how different viruses circumvent it. This information is of fundamental interest, but may also have practical application in the design and manufacture of attenuated virus vaccines and the development of novel antiviral drugs. In the first part of this review, we describe how viruses activate the IFN system, how IFNs induce transcription of their target genes and the mechanism of action of IFN-induced proteins with antiviral action. In the second part, we describe how viruses circumvent the IFN response. Here, we reflect upon possible consequences for both the virus and host of the different strategies that viruses have evolved and discuss whether certain viruses have exploited the IFN response to modulate their life cycle (e.g. to establish and maintain persistent/latent infections), whether perturbation of the IFN response by persistent infections can lead to chronic disease, and the importance of the IFN system as a species barrier to virus infections. Lastly, we briefly describe applied aspects that arise from an increase in our knowledge in this area, including vaccine design and manufacture, the development of novel antiviral drugs and the use of IFN-sensitive oncolytic viruses in the treatment of cancer.
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              Cell type-specific involvement of RIG-I in antiviral response.

              Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play an important role in antiviral response by recognizing viral components. Recently, a RNA helicase, RIG-I, was also suggested to recognize viral double-stranded RNA. However, how these molecules contribute to viral recognition in vivo is poorly understood. We show by gene targeting that RIG-I is essential for induction of type I interferons (IFNs) after infection with RNA viruses in fibroblasts and conventional dendritic cells (DCs). RIG-I induces type I IFNs by activating IRF3 via IkappaB kinase-related kinases. In contrast, plasmacytoid DCs, which produce large amounts of IFN-alpha, use the TLR system rather than RIG-I for viral detection. Taken together, RIG-I and the TLR system exert antiviral responses in a cell type-specific manner.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Viruses
                Viruses
                viruses
                Viruses
                MDPI
                1999-4915
                02 April 2012
                April 2012
                : 4
                : 4
                : 424-446
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA; Email: yansun3@ 123456illinois.edu (Y.S.); mhan10@ 123456illinois.edu (M.H.); ckim102@ 123456illinois.edu (C.K.)
                [2 ]Pfizer Animal Health, Kalamazoo, MI 49007, USA; Email: jay.calvert@ 123456pfizer.com
                Author notes
                [* ] Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; Email: dyoo@ 123456illinois.edu ; Tel.: +1-217-244-9120; Fax: +1-217-244-7421.
                Article
                viruses-04-00424
                10.3390/v4040424
                3347317
                22590680
                b6afdb47-e6d4-4f45-9b66-0ef4719b0617
                © 2012 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.

                This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).

                History
                : 30 January 2012
                : 15 March 2012
                : 18 March 2012
                Categories
                Review

                Microbiology & Virology
                non-structural proteins,nf-κb,prrs,interferon,arterivirus,nsp,jak-stat,mda5,nucleocapsid,rig-i,prrsv

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