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      Regulation of Nutritional Metabolism in Transition Dairy Cows: Energy Homeostasis and Health in Response to Post-Ruminal Choline and Methionine

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          Abstract

          This study investigated the effects of rumen-protected methionine (RPM) and rumen-protected choline (RPC) on energy balance, postpartum lactation performance, antioxidant capacity and immune response in transition dairy cows. Forty-eight multiparous transition cows were matched and divided into four groups: control, 15 g/d RPC, 15 g/d RPM or 15 g/d RPC + 15 g/d RPM. Diet samples were collected daily before feeding, and blood samples were collected weekly from the jugular vein before morning feeding from 21 days prepartum to 21 days postpartum. Postpartum dry matter intake (DMI) was increased by both additives ( P < 0.05), and energy balance values in supplemented cows were improved after parturition ( P < 0.05). Both RPC and RPM decreased the plasma concentrations of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), β-hydroxybutyric acid (BHBA), total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) ( P < 0.05), but increased the plasma levels of glucose, very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and apolipoprotein B100 (ApoB 100, P < 0.05). The supplements improved milk production ( P < 0.05), and increased ( P < 0.05) or tended to increase (0.05 < P < 0.10) the contents of milk fat and protein. The post-ruminal choline and methionine elevated the blood antioxidant status, as indicated by total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity and the vitamin E concentration ( P < 0.05), and reduced the plasma malondialdehyde (MDA) level ( P < 0.05). Furthermore, RPM and RPC elevated the plasma interleukin 2 (IL-2) concentration and the CD4 +/CD8 + T lymphocyte ratio in peripheral blood ( P < 0.05). Alternatively, the levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and IL-6 were decreased by RPM and RPC ( P < 0.05). Overall, the regulatory responses of RPC and RPM were highly correlated with time and were more effective in the postpartum cows. The results demonstrated that dietary supplementation with RPC and RPM promoted energy balance by increasing postpartal DMI and regulating hepatic lipid metabolism, improved postpartum lactation performance and enhanced antioxidant capacity and immune function of transition dairy cows.

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          Methionine in proteins defends against oxidative stress.

          Erica L Levine, Shen Luo (2009)
          A variety of reactive oxygen species react readily with methionine residues in proteins to form methionine sulfoxide, thus scavenging the reactive species. Most cells contain methionine sulfoxide reductases, which catalyze a thioredoxin-dependent reduction of methionine sulfoxide back to methionine. Thus, methionine residues may act as catalytic antioxidants, protecting both the protein where they are located and other macromolecules. To test this hypothesis directly, we replaced 40% of the methionine residues in Escherichia coli with norleucine, the carbon-containing analog, in which the sulfur of methionine is substituted by a methylene group (-CH2-). The intracellular free methionine and S-adenosylmethionine pools were not altered, nor was the specific activity of the key enzyme, glutamine synthetase. When unstressed, both control and norleucine-substituted cells survived equally well at stationary phase for at least 32 h. However, oxidative stress was more damaging to the norleucine-substituted cells. They died more rapidly than control cells when challenged by hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide, or ionizing radiation. One of the most abundant proteins in the cell, elongation factor Tu, was found to be more oxidatively modified in norleucine-substituted cells, consistent with loss of the antioxidant defense provided by methionine residues. The results of these studies support the hypothesis that methionine in protein acts as an endogenous antioxidant in cells.
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            Plasma paraoxonase, health, inflammatory conditions, and liver function in transition dairy cows.

            F Librandi, Heike Bischoff-Ferrari, E. Trevisi … (2007)
            Paraoxonase (PON) is a liver protein with hydrolase activity that is released into the blood stream. Paraoxonase may serve as an index of liver function because it is drastically reduced in chronic liver damage. Sixty-seven periparturient dairy cows were used to evaluate the relationship between plasma PON, health problems, inflammatory conditions, and liver function. Baseline plasma PON concentrations during the first 30 d in milk (DIM) were retrospectively used to group cows into quartiles. Metabolic profile, lipid metabolites (e.g., nonesterified fatty acids, beta-hydroxybutyrate), inflammatory indices (haptoglobin, ceruloplasmin), low and high density lipoprotein cholesterol, vitamin A, vitamin E, reactive oxygen metabolites, total antioxidants, and PON in plasma were measured 2 wk before to 8 wk after calving. Weekly milk yield, body condition score, and all health problems were recorded. After parturition (7 DIM), cows in the lower PON group had the lowest plasma concentrations of negative acute phase proteins compared with the higher PON group for retinol binding protein (23.2 +/- 2.86 vs. 36.0 +/- 2.96 microg/dL of vitamin A), albumin (31.6 +/- 0.73 vs. 33.9 +/- 0.75 g/L), total cholesterol (2.04 +/- 0.30 vs. 2.45 +/- 0.42 mmol/L), and the highest concentrations of haptoglobin (0.67 vs. 0.24 +/- 0.03 g/L; positive acute phase protein) and globulins (37.2 vs. 32.3 +/- 1.4 g/L). Plasma bilirubin was highest in the cows (10.1 vs. 6.2 +/- 0.6 micromol/L) in the lowest PON quartile. Plasma PON was negatively correlated with haptoglobin (r = -0.39) and bilirubin (r = -0.42) and positively correlated with retinol binding protein (r = 0.54), albumin (r = 0.38), and cholesterol (r = 0.55) fractions. A total of 82.3% of cows in the lower quartile and no cows in the upper quartile experienced serious inflammation. Lower quartile cows produced 28.1 +/- 10.3 kg of milk/d; whereas upper quartile cows produced 38.3 +/- 7.7 kg of milk/d during the first 30 DIM. A reduction in the ability of the liver to cope with the increased metabolic demand near parturition in dairy cows can be diagnosed using changes in baseline plasma PON.
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              Mitochondrial beta-oxidation.

              Yvonne K Bartlett, Simon Eaton (2004)
              Mitochondrial beta-oxidation is a complex pathway involving, in the case of saturated straight chain fatty acids of even carbon number, at least 16 proteins which are organized into two functional subdomains; one associated with the inner face of the inner mitochondrial membrane and the other in the matrix. Overall, the pathway is subject to intramitochondrial control at multiple sites. However, at least in the liver, carnitine palmitoyl transferase I exerts approximately 80% of control over pathway flux under normal conditions. Clearly, when one or more enzyme activities are attenuated because of a mutation, the major site of flux control will change.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Peter J. Hansen: Role: Editor
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): PLoS One
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): PLoS ONE
                Journal ID (publisher-id): plos
                Journal ID (pmc): plosone
                Title: PLoS ONE
                Publisher: Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                ISSN (Electronic): 1932-6203
                Publication date (Electronic): 8 August 2016
                Publication date Collection: 2016
                Volume: 11
                Issue: 8
                Electronic Location Identifier: e0160659
                Affiliations
                [001]College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, P. R. China
                University of Florida, UNITED STATES
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                • Conceived and designed the experiments: FS YC JY.

                • Performed the experiments: FS CC SL.

                • Analyzed the data: FS CY.

                • Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: CY.

                • Wrote the paper: FS JY.

                Article
                Publisher ID: PONE-D-15-53515
                DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160659
                PMC ID: 4976856
                PubMed ID: 27501393
                SO-VID: b8af4973-b521-4140-814e-53fdaecc3731
                Copyright © © 2016 Sun et al
                License:

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                Date received : 10 December 2015
                Date accepted : 23 July 2016
                Page count
                Figures: 8, Tables: 7, Pages: 27
                Funding
                Funded by: National Key Technologies R&D Program of China
                Award ID: 2012BAD12B02
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100001809, National Natural Science Foundation of China;
                Award ID: 31472122
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: Program of International S&T Cooperation, China
                Award ID: 2010DFB34230
                Award Recipient :
                This research was supported by the National Key Technologies R&D Program of China (2012BAD12B02), National Natural Science Foundation of China (31472122) and the Program of International S&T Cooperation, China (2010DFB34230). All the fundings were received by Junhu Yao.
                Categories
                Subject: Research Article
                Subject: Biology and Life Sciences
                Subject: Anatomy
                Subject: Body Fluids
                Subject: Blood
                Subject: Blood Plasma
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
                Subject: Anatomy
                Subject: Body Fluids
                Subject: Blood
                Subject: Blood Plasma
                Subject: Biology and Life Sciences
                Subject: Physiology
                Subject: Body Fluids
                Subject: Blood
                Subject: Blood Plasma
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
                Subject: Physiology
                Subject: Body Fluids
                Subject: Blood
                Subject: Blood Plasma
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
                Subject: Hematology
                Subject: Blood
                Subject: Blood Plasma
                Subject: Physical Sciences
                Subject: Chemistry
                Subject: Chemical Compounds
                Subject: Organic Compounds
                Subject: Amino Acids
                Subject: Sulfur Containing Amino Acids
                Subject: Methionine
                Subject: Physical Sciences
                Subject: Chemistry
                Subject: Organic Chemistry
                Subject: Organic Compounds
                Subject: Amino Acids
                Subject: Sulfur Containing Amino Acids
                Subject: Methionine
                Subject: Biology and Life Sciences
                Subject: Biochemistry
                Subject: Proteins
                Subject: Amino Acids
                Subject: Sulfur Containing Amino Acids
                Subject: Methionine
                Subject: Physical Sciences
                Subject: Chemistry
                Subject: Chemical Compounds
                Subject: Organic Compounds
                Subject: Vitamins
                Subject: B Vitamins
                Subject: Cholines
                Subject: Physical Sciences
                Subject: Chemistry
                Subject: Organic Chemistry
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                Subject: Vitamins
                Subject: B Vitamins
                Subject: Cholines
                Subject: Biology and Life Sciences
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                Subject: Antioxidants
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
                Subject: Endocrinology
                Subject: Endocrine Physiology
                Subject: Lactation
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                Subject: Endocrine Physiology
                Subject: Lactation
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                Subject: Reproductive Physiology
                Subject: Lactation
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
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                Subject: Reproductive Physiology
                Subject: Lactation
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                Subject: Chemistry
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                Subject: Organic Compounds
                Subject: Carbohydrates
                Subject: Monosaccharides
                Subject: Glucose
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                Subject: Biology and Life Sciences
                Subject: Nutrition
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                Subject: Nutrition
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                Subject: Organic compounds
                Subject: Vitamins
                Subject: Vitamin E
                Subject: Physical sciences
                Subject: Chemistry
                Subject: Organic chemistry
                Subject: Organic compounds
                Subject: Vitamins
                Subject: Vitamin E
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