This light and electron microscope study revealed that leptosporangiate ferns have highly distinctive gametophyte-sporophyte junctions characterized by sporophytic haustoria, the absence of intraplacental spaces and degenerating cells, and the early appearance of wall ingrowths in both generations. Other notable cytological features are highly pleomorphic plastids and mitochondrial aggregates in the gametophytic placental cells. Close similarities with the gametophyte-sporophyte junctions in Tmesipteris and major differences from those of homosporous lycophytes are in line with the placement of psilophytes and ferns in the same clade and distance both from lycophytes. A smooth interface between the two generations in Azolla suggests a clear-cut discontinuity between homosporous and heterosporous ferns, although this is the only heterosporous fern investigated to date. Similarities between the gametophyte-sporophyte junctions of leptosporangiate ferns and hornworts, when balanced against differences between them, are considered more likely the result of parallel evolution rather than homology.
