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      Factors associated with unsuppressed viremia in women living with HIV on lifelong ART in the multi-country US-PEPFAR PROMOTE study: A cross-sectional analysis

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          Abstract

          Background

          Despite recent efforts to scale-up lifelong combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) in sub-Saharan Africa, high rates of unsuppressed viremia persist among cART users, and many countries in the region fall short of the UNAIDS 2020 target to have 90% virally suppressed. We sought to determine the factors associated with unsuppressed viremia (defined for the purpose of this study as >200 copies/ml) among sub-Saharan African women on lifelong cART.

          Methods

          This cross-sectional analysis was based on baseline data of the PROMOTE longitudinal cohort study at 8 sites in Uganda, Malawi, Zimbabwe and South Africa. The study enrolled 1987 women living with HIV who initiated lifelong cART at least 1–5 years ago. Socio-demographic, clinical, and cART adherence data were collected. We used multivariable Poisson regression with robust variance to identify factors associated with unsuppressed viremia.

          Results

          At enrolment, 1947/1987 (98%) women reported taking cART. Of these, HIV-1 remained detectable in 293/1934 (15%), while 216/1934 (11.2%) were considered unsuppressed (>200 copies/ml). The following factors were associated with an increased risk of unsuppressed viremia: not having household electricity (adjusted prevalence risk ratio (aPRR) 1.74, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.28–2.36, p<0.001); not being married (aPRR 1.32, 95% CI 0.99–1.78, p = 0.061), self-reported missed cART doses (aPRR 1.63, 95% CI 1.24–2.13, p<0.001); recent hospitalization (aPRR 2.48, 95% CI 1.28–4.80, p = 0.007) and experiencing abnormal vaginal discharge in the last three months (aPRR 1.88; 95% CI 1.16–3.04, p = 0.010). Longer time on cART (aPRR 0.75, 95% CI 0.64–0.88, p<0.001) and being older (aPRR 0.77, 95% CI 0.76–0.88, p<0.001) were associated with reduced risk of unsuppressed viremia.

          Conclusion

          Socioeconomic barriers such as poverty, and individual barriers like not being married, young age, and self-reported missed doses are key predictors of unsuppressed viremia. Targeted interventions are needed to improve cART adherence among women living with HIV with this risk factor profile.

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          Most cited references17

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          Benefits and Risks of Antiretroviral Therapy for Perinatal HIV Prevention.

          Background Randomized-trial data on the risks and benefits of antiretroviral therapy (ART) as compared with zidovudine and single-dose nevirapine to prevent transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in HIV-infected pregnant women with high CD4 counts are lacking. Methods We randomly assigned HIV-infected women at 14 or more weeks of gestation with CD4 counts of at least 350 cells per cubic millimeter to zidovudine and single-dose nevirapine plus a 1-to-2-week postpartum "tail" of tenofovir and emtricitabine (zidovudine alone); zidovudine, lamivudine, and lopinavir-ritonavir (zidovudine-based ART); or tenofovir, emtricitabine, and lopinavir-ritonavir (tenofovir-based ART). The primary outcomes were HIV transmission at 1 week of age in the infant and maternal and infant safety. Results The median CD4 count was 530 cells per cubic millimeter among 3490 primarily black African HIV-infected women enrolled at a median of 26 weeks of gestation (interquartile range, 21 to 30). The rate of transmission was significantly lower with ART than with zidovudine alone (0.5% in the combined ART groups vs. 1.8%; difference, -1.3 percentage points; repeated confidence interval, -2.1 to -0.4). However, the rate of maternal grade 2 to 4 adverse events was significantly higher with zidovudine-based ART than with zidovudine alone (21.1% vs. 17.3%, P=0.008), and the rate of grade 2 to 4 abnormal blood chemical values was higher with tenofovir-based ART than with zidovudine alone (2.9% vs. 0.8%, P=0.03). Adverse events did not differ significantly between the ART groups (P>0.99). A birth weight of less than 2500 g was more frequent with zidovudine-based ART than with zidovudine alone (23.0% vs. 12.0%, P<0.001) and was more frequent with tenofovir-based ART than with zidovudine alone (16.9% vs. 8.9%, P=0.004); preterm delivery before 37 weeks was more frequent with zidovudine-based ART than with zidovudine alone (20.5% vs. 13.1%, P<0.001). Tenofovir-based ART was associated with higher rates than zidovudine-based ART of very preterm delivery before 34 weeks (6.0% vs. 2.6%, P=0.04) and early infant death (4.4% vs. 0.6%, P=0.001), but there were no significant differences between tenofovir-based ART and zidovudine alone (P=0.10 and P=0.43). The rate of HIV-free survival was highest among infants whose mothers received zidovudine-based ART. Conclusions Antenatal ART resulted in significantly lower rates of early HIV transmission than zidovudine alone but a higher risk of adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health; PROMISE ClinicalTrials.gov numbers, NCT01061151 and NCT01253538 .).
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            Multi-month prescriptions, fast-track refills, and community ART groups: results from a process evaluation in Malawi on using differentiated models of care to achieve national HIV treatment goals

            Abstract Introduction: In order to facilitate scale-up of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Malawi, innovative and pragmatic models have been developed to optimize the efficiency of HIV service delivery. In particular, three models of differentiated care have emerged for stable patients: adjusted appointment spacing through multi-month scripting (MMS); fast-track drug refills (FTRs) on alternating visits; and community ART groups (CAGs) where group members rotate in collecting medications at the facility for all members. This study aimed to assess the extent to which ART patients in Malawi are differentiated based on clinical stability and describe the characteristics and costs associated with the models of differentiated care offered. Methods: A mixed methods process evaluation was conducted from 30 purposefully selected ART facilities. Cross-sectional data for this evaluation was collected between February and May 2016. The following forms of data collection are reported here: structured surveys with 136 health care workers; reviews of 75,364 patient clinical records; 714 observations of visit time and flow; and 30 questionnaires on facility characteristics. Results: Among ART patients, 77.5% (95% confidence interval [CI] 74.1–80.6) were eligible for differentiated models of care based on criteria for clinical stability from national guidelines. Across all facilities, 69% of patients were receiving MMS. In facilities offering FTRs and CAGs, 67% and 6% of patients were enrolled in the models, respectively. However, eligibility criteria were used inconsistently: 72.9% (95% CI 66.3–78.6) of eligible patients and 42.3% (95% CI 33.1–52.0) ineligible patients received MMS. Results indicated that patient travel and time costs were reduced by 67%, and the unit costs of ART service delivery through the MMS, FTR and CAG models were similar, representing a reduction of approximately 10% in the annual unit cost of providing care to stable patients that receive no model. Conclusions: MMS is being implemented nationally and has already generated cost savings and efficiencies in Malawi for patients and the health system, but could be improved by more accurate patient differentiation. While expanding FTRs and CAGs may not offer significant further cost savings in Malawi, future studies should investigate if such alternative models lead to improvements in patient satisfaction or clinical outcomes that might justify their implementation.
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              Effect of HIV-1 low-level viraemia during antiretroviral therapy on treatment outcomes in WHO-guided South African treatment programmes: a multicentre cohort study.

              Antiretroviral therapy (ART) that enables suppression of HIV replication has been successfully rolled out at large scale to HIV-positive patients in low-income and middle-income countries. WHO guidelines for these regions define failure of ART with a lenient threshold of viraemia (HIV RNA viral load ≥1000 copies per mL). We investigated the occurrence of detectable viraemia during ART below this threshold and its effect on treatment outcomes in a large South African cohort.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                24 October 2019
                2019
                : 14
                : 10
                : e0219415
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Makerere University-Johns Hopkins University (MU-JHU) Kampala, Uganda
                [2 ] Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA), Umlazi Clinical Research Site, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, Durban, South Africa
                [3 ] Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA), Durban, South Africa
                [4 ] Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
                [5 ] University of Zimbabwe College of Health Sciences Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Harare, Zimbabwe
                [6 ] Malawi College of Medicine-John's Hopkins Research Project, Blantyre, Malawi
                [7 ] University of North Carolina (UNC) Project, Lilongwe, Malawi
                [8 ] Perinatal HIV Research Unit (PHRU), Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
                [9 ] Johns Hopkins University, Departments of Pathology and Epidemiology, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
                Yeshiva University Albert Einstein College of Medicine, UNITED STATES
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2662-0756
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3566-1688
                Article
                PONE-D-19-17608
                10.1371/journal.pone.0219415
                6812809
                31647806
                b90ce5ec-9d6b-43dd-9889-710a989a2cc7

                This is an open access article, free of all copyright, and may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication.

                History
                : 21 June 2019
                : 10 October 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 2, Pages: 14
                Funding
                The PROMOTE study is funded by the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) through DAIDS/NIAID/NIH grants to each of the following Clinical Trials Units (CTUs): JHU-Uganda CTU Makerere University-Johns Hopkins University (MU-JHU) Research Collaboration, grant # UM1 AI069530-11; The Johns Hopkins University-Blantyre Clinical Trials Unit, grant # UM1AI069518-12; The University of North Carolina Global HIV Prevention and Treatment Clinical Trials Unit, grant # 5UM1AI069423-12; University of Zimbabwe College of Health Sciences Clinical Trials Research Centre, grant # 5UM1AI069436-12; PHRU KARABELO Clinical Trials Unit for NIAID Networks Grant # 5UM1AI069453; Clinical Trials Unit for AIDS/Tuberculosis Prevention and Treatment - Grant Number: 5UM1AI069469-11; and CAPRISA Clinical Trials Unit for AIDS/Tuberculosis Prevention and Treatment, grant # 5UM1AI069469. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Infectious Diseases
                Viral Diseases
                Viremia
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Microbiology
                Medical Microbiology
                Microbial Pathogens
                Viral Pathogens
                Immunodeficiency Viruses
                HIV
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
                Pathogens
                Microbial Pathogens
                Viral Pathogens
                Immunodeficiency Viruses
                HIV
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                Pathogens
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                Africa
                Uganda
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                Zimbabwe
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