Body fluids and salt metabolism - Part II

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Abstract

There is a high frequency of diarrhea and vomiting in childhood. As a consequence the focus of the present review is to recognize the different body fluid compartments, to clinically assess the degree of dehydration, to know how the equilibrium between extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid is maintained, to calculate the effective blood osmolality and discuss both parenteral fluid maintenance and replacement.

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Most cited references 23

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A review of drug-induced hyponatremia.

G Liamis, Moses S. Elisaf, Haralampos Milionis (2008)

Hyponatremia (defined as a serum sodium level < 134 mmol/L) is the most common electrolyte abnormality in hospitalized patients. Certain drugs (eg, diuretics, antidepressants, and antiepileptics) have been implicated as established causes of either asymptomatic or symptomatic hyponatremia. However, hyponatremia occasionally may develop in the course of treatment with drugs used in everyday clinical practice (eg, newer antihypertensive agents, antibiotics, and proton pump inhibitors). Physicians may not always give proper attention in time to undesirable drug-induced hyponatremia. Effective clinical management can be handled through awareness of the adverse effect of certain pharmaceutical compounds on serum sodium levels. Here, we review clinical information about the incidence of hyponatremia associated with specific drug treatment and discuss the underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms.

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Managing acute gastroenteritis among children: oral rehydration, maintenance, and nutritional therapy.

Margaret K. King, , Christopher Duggan … (2003)

Acute gastroenteritis remains a common illness among infants and children throughout the world. Among children in the United States, acute diarrhea accounts for >1.5 million outpatient visits, 200,000 hospitalizations, and approximately 300 deaths/year. In developing countries, diarrhea is a common cause of mortality among children aged <5 years, with an estimated 2 million deaths annually. Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) includes rehydration and maintenance fluids with oral rehydration solutions (ORS), combined with continued age-appropriate nutrition. Although ORT has been instrumental in improving health outcomes among children in developing countries, its use has lagged behind in the United States. This report provides a review of the historical background and physiologic basis for using ORT and provides recommendations for assessing and managing children with acute diarrhea, including those who have become dehydrated. Recent developments in the science of gastroenteritis management have substantially altered case management. Physicians now recognize that zinc supplementation can reduce the incidence and severity of diarrheal disease, and an ORS of reduced osmolarity (i.e., proportionally reduced concentrations of sodium and glucose) has been developed for global use. The combination of oral rehydration and early nutritional support has proven effective throughout the world in treating acute diarrhea. In 1992, CDC prepared the first national guidelines for managing childhood diarrhea (CDC. The management of acute diarrhea in children: oral rehydration, maintenance, and nutritional therapy. MMWR 1992;41[No. RR-16]), and this report updates those recommendations. This report reviews the historical background and scientific basis of ORT and provides a framework for assessing and treating infants and children who have acute diarrhea. The discussion focuses on common clinical scenarios and traditional practices, especially regarding continued feeding. Limitations of ORT, ongoing research in the areas of micronutrient supplements, and functional foods are reviewed as well. These updated recommendations were developed by specialists in managing gastroenteritis, in consultation with CDC and external consultants. Relevant literature was identified through an extensive MEDLINE search by using related terms. Articles were then reviewed for their relevance to pediatric practice, with emphasis on U.S. populations. Unpublished references were sought from the external consultants and other researchers. In the United States, adoption of these updated recommendations could substantially reduce medical costs and childhood hospitalizations and deaths caused by diarrhea.

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Preventing neurological complications from dysnatremias in children.

J C Ayus, Gillian Moritz (2005)

Dysnatremias are among the most common electrolyte abnormalities encountered in hospitalized patients. In most cases, a dysnatremia results from improper fluid management. Dysnatremias can occasionally result in death or permanent neurological damage, a tragic complication that is usually preventable. In this manuscript, we discuss the epidemiology, pathogenesis and prevention and treatment of dysnatremias in children. We report on over 50 patients who have suffered death or neurological injury from hospital-acquired hyponatremia. The main factor contributing to hyponatremic encephalopathy in children is the routine use of hypotonic fluids in patients who have an impaired ability to excrete free-water, due to such causes as the postoperative state, volume depletion and pulmonary and central nervous system diseases. The appropriate use of 0.9% sodium chloride in parenteral fluids would likely prevent most cases of hospital-acquired hyponatremic encephalopathy. We report on 15 prospective studies in over 500 surgical patients that demonstrate that normal saline effectively prevents postoperative hyponatremia, and hypotonic fluids consistently result in a fall in serum sodium. Hyponatremic encephalopathy is a medical emergency that should be treated with hypertonic saline, and should never be managed with fluid restriction alone. Hospital-acquired hypernatremia occurs in patients who have restricted access to fluids in combination with ongoing free-water losses. Hypernatremia could largely be prevented by providing adequate free-water to patients who have ongoing free-water losses or when mild hypernatremia (Na>145 mE/l) develops. A group at high-risk for neurological damage from hypernatremia in the outpatient setting is that of the breastfed infant. Breastfed infants must be monitored closely for insufficient lactation and receive lactation support. Judicious use of infant formula supplementation may be called for until problems with lactation can be corrected.

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Author and article information

Journal

Journal ID (nlm-ta): Ital J Pediatr

Title: Italian Journal of Pediatrics

Publisher: BioMed Central

ISSN (Electronic): 1824-7288

Publication date Collection: 2010

Publication date (Electronic): 13 December 2010

Volume: 36

Page: 78

Affiliations

[1 ]Department of Pediatrics, Bellinzona and Mendrisio, and University of Bern, Switzerland

[2 ]Emergency Unit, Clinica Pediatrica De Marchi, Foundation IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milano, Italy

[3 ]Department of Pediatrics, San Leopoldo Mandic Hospital, Merate-Lecco, Italy

[4 ]Pediatric Nephrology, University of Bern, Switzerland

Article

Publisher ID: 1824-7288-36-78

DOI: 10.1186/1824-7288-36-78

PMC ID: 3022615

PubMed ID: 21144005

SO-VID: ba05b878-a1e4-4f9f-8af3-57284d4b7cd2

License:

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (<url>http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0</url>), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Body fluids and salt metabolism - Part II

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Abstract

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Estudio del peso al nacer

Most cited references 23

A review of drug-induced hyponatremia.

Managing acute gastroenteritis among children: oral rehydration, maintenance, and nutritional therapy.

Preventing neurological complications from dysnatremias in children.

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