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      Oxidative stress and adrenocortical insufficiency

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          Abstract

          Maintenance of redox balance is essential for normal cellular functions. Any perturbation in this balance due to increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) leads to oxidative stress and may lead to cell dysfunction/damage/death. Mitochondria are responsible for the majority of cellular ROS production secondary to electron leakage as a consequence of respiration. Furthermore, electron leakage by the cytochrome P450 enzymes may render steroidogenic tissues acutely vulnerable to redox imbalance. The adrenal cortex, in particular, is well supplied with both enzymatic (glutathione peroxidases and peroxiredoxins) and non-enzymatic (vitamins A, C and E) antioxidants to cope with this increased production of ROS due to steroidogenesis. Nonetheless oxidative stress is implicated in several potentially lethal adrenal disorders including X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy, triple A syndrome and most recently familial glucocorticoid deficiency. The finding of mutations in antioxidant defence genes in the latter two conditions highlights how disturbances in redox homeostasis may have an effect on adrenal steroidogenesis.

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          Most cited references78

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          A genetic and physiological study of impaired glucose homeostasis control in C57BL/6J mice.

          C57BL/6J mice exhibit impaired glucose tolerance. The aims of this study were to map the genetic loci underlying this phenotype, to further characterise the physiological defects and to identify candidate genes. Glucose tolerance was measured in an intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test and genetic determinants mapped in an F2 intercross. Insulin sensitivity was measured by injecting insulin and following glucose disposal from the plasma. To measure beta cell function, insulin secretion and electrophysiological studies were carried out on isolated islets. Candidate genes were investigated by sequencing and quantitative RNA analysis. C57BL/6J mice showed normal insulin sensitivity and impaired insulin secretion. In beta cells, glucose did not stimulate a rise in intracellular calcium and its ability to close KATP channels was impaired. We identified three genetic loci responsible for the impaired glucose tolerance. Nicotinamide nucleotide transhydrogenase (Nnt) lies within one locus and is a nuclear-encoded mitochondrial proton pump. Expression of Nnt is more than sevenfold and fivefold lower respectively in C57BL/6J liver and islets. There is a missense mutation in exon 1 and a multi-exon deletion in the C57BL/6J gene. Glucokinase lies within the Gluchos2 locus and shows reduced enzyme activity in liver. The C57BL/6J mouse strain exhibits plasma glucose intolerance reminiscent of human type 2 diabetes. Our data suggest a defect in beta cell glucose metabolism that results in reduced electrical activity and insulin secretion. We have identified three loci that are responsible for the inherited impaired plasma glucose tolerance and identified a novel candidate gene for contribution to glucose intolerance through reduced beta cell activity.
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            Variation in type 2 diabetes--related traits in mouse strains susceptible to diet-induced obesity.

            C57BL/6J (B6) and AKR/J (AKR) inbred strains of mice develop a comparable degree of obesity when fed a high-fat diet. However, although obese B6 mice are more glucose intolerant, obese AKR mice are more insulin resistant. To understand the basis for these strain differences, we characterized features of adiposity and glucose homeostasis in mice fed a high-fat diet for 8 weeks. The results indicated that despite hyperglycemia and impaired glucose tolerance, B6 mice have lower plasma insulin and are more insulin sensitive than AKR mice. Compared with adipose tissue of AKR mice, adipose tissue of B6 mice contained about threefold higher levels of total membrane-bound GLUT4 protein, whereas in skeletal muscle the levels were similar. Uptake of 2-[(14)C]deoxyglucose in vivo was reduced by a high-fat diet in adipose tissue, but not in skeletal muscle. Surprisingly, no significant differences in uptake occurred between the strains, despite the differences in GLUT4; however, glucose flux was calculated to be slightly higher in B6 mice. Higher expression of PEPCK in the liver of B6 mice, under both standard-diet and high-fat-diet conditions, suggests a plausible mechanism for elevated glycemia in these mice. In conclusion, phenotypic variation in insulin resistance and glucose production in the B6 and AKR strains could provide a genetic system for the identification of genes controlling glucose homeostasis.
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              X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy: clinical, metabolic, genetic and pathophysiological aspects.

              X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy (X-ALD) is the most frequent peroxisomal disease. The two main clinical phenotypes of X-ALD are adrenomyeloneuropathy (AMN) and inflammatory cerebral ALD that manifests either in children or more rarely in adults. About 65% of heterozygote females develop symptoms by the age of 60years. Mutations in the ABCD1 gene affect the function of the encoded protein ALDP, an ATP-binding-cassette (ABC) transporter located in the peroxisomal membrane protein. ALDP deficiency impairs the peroxisomal beta-oxidation of very long-chain fatty acids (VLCFA) and facilitates their further chain elongation by ELOVL1 resulting in accumulation of VLCFA in plasma and tissues. While all patients have mutations in the ABCD1 gene, there is no general genotype-phenotype correlation. Environmental factors and a multitude of modifying genes appear to determine the clinical manifestation in this monogenetic but multifactorial disease. This review focuses on the clinical, biochemical, genetic and pathophysiological aspects of X-ALD. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

                Author and article information

                Journal
                J Endocrinol
                J. Endocrinol
                JOE
                The Journal of Endocrinology
                Bioscientifica Ltd (Bristol )
                0022-0795
                1479-6805
                June 2014
                12 March 2014
                : 221
                : 3
                : R63-R73
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, William Harvey Research Institute, Centre for Endocrinology, Queen Mary University of London John Vane Science Centre, Charterhouse Square, London, EC1M 6BQUK
                Author notes
                Correspondence should be addressed to L A Metherell; Email: l.a.metherell@ 123456qmul.ac.uk
                Article
                JOE130346
                10.1530/JOE-13-0346
                4045218
                24623797
                babb87f9-201c-4b7f-b702-7ae53546d893
                © 2014 The authors

                This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License

                History
                : 7 February 2014
                : 7 March 2014
                Categories
                Review

                Endocrinology & Diabetes
                oxidative stress,reactive oxygen species,steroidogenesis,adrenal insufficiency

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