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      Role of ginsenosides, the main active components of Panax ginseng, in inflammatory responses and diseases

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          Abstract

          Panax ginseng is one of the most universally used herbal medicines in Asian and Western countries. Most of the biological activities of ginseng are derived from its main constituents, ginsenosides. Interestingly, a number of studies have reported that ginsenosides and their metabolites/derivatives—including ginsenoside (G)-Rb1, compound K, G-Rb2, G-Rd, G-Re, G-Rg1, G-Rg3, G-Rg5, G-Rh1, G-Rh2, and G-Rp1—exert anti-inflammatory activities in inflammatory responses by suppressing the production of proinflammatory cytokines and regulating the activities of inflammatory signaling pathways, such as nuclear factor-κB and activator protein-1. This review discusses recent studies regarding molecular mechanisms by which ginsenosides play critical roles in inflammatory responses and diseases, and provides evidence showing their potential to prevent and treat inflammatory diseases.

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          Most cited references69

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          Inflammation underlies a wide variety of physiological and pathological processes. Although the pathological aspects of many types of inflammation are well appreciated, their physiological functions are mostly unknown. The classic instigators of inflammation - infection and tissue injury - are at one end of a large range of adverse conditions that induce inflammation, and they trigger the recruitment of leukocytes and plasma proteins to the affected tissue site. Tissue stress or malfunction similarly induces an adaptive response, which is referred to here as para-inflammation. This response relies mainly on tissue-resident macrophages and is intermediate between the basal homeostatic state and a classic inflammatory response. Para-inflammation is probably responsible for the chronic inflammatory conditions that are associated with modern human diseases.
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            The mammalian immune system has innate and adaptive components, which cooperate to protect the host against microbial infections. The innate immune system consists of functionally distinct 'modules' that evolved to provide different forms of protection against pathogens. It senses pathogens through pattern-recognition receptors, which trigger the activation of antimicrobial defences and stimulate the adaptive immune response. The adaptive immune system, in turn, activates innate effector mechanisms in an antigen-specific manner. The connections between the various immune components are not fully understood, but recent progress brings us closer to an integrated view of the immune system and its function in host defence.
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              The inflammasomes: guardians of the body.

              The innate immune system relies on its capacity to rapidly detect invading pathogenic microbes as foreign and to eliminate them. The discovery of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) provided a class of membrane receptors that sense extracellular microbes and trigger antipathogen signaling cascades. More recently, intracellular microbial sensors have been identified, including NOD-like receptors (NLRs). Some of the NLRs also sense nonmicrobial danger signals and form large cytoplasmic complexes called inflammasomes that link the sensing of microbial products and metabolic stress to the proteolytic activation of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1beta and IL-18. The NALP3 inflammasome has been associated with several autoinflammatory conditions including gout. Likewise, the NALP3 inflammasome is a crucial element in the adjuvant effect of aluminum and can direct a humoral adaptive immune response. In this review, we discuss the role of NLRs, and in particular the inflammasomes, in the recognition of microbial and danger components and the role they play in health and disease.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                J Ginseng Res
                J Ginseng Res
                Journal of Ginseng Research
                Elsevier
                1226-8453
                2093-4947
                18 August 2016
                October 2017
                18 August 2016
                : 41
                : 4
                : 435-443
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Genetic Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
                [2 ]Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Cheongju University, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
                [3 ]School of Systems Biomedical Science, Soongsil University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
                Author notes
                []Corresponding authors. Jae Youl Cho, Department of Genetic Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea. Mi-Yeon Kim, School of Systems Biomedical Science, Soongsil University, Seoul 06978, Republic of Korea. kimmy@ 123456ssu.ac.kr jaecho@ 123456skku.edu
                [☆]

                J. H. Kim and Y.-S. Yi contributed equally to this work.

                Article
                S1226-8453(16)30128-2
                10.1016/j.jgr.2016.08.004
                5628327
                29021688
                bc3d6368-405c-430b-a72e-04d6914e513c
                © 2017 The Korean Society of Ginseng, Published by Elsevier Korea LLC.

                This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

                History
                : 12 July 2016
                : 9 August 2016
                Categories
                Review Article

                ginsenosides,inflammation,inflammatory diseases,panax ginseng,signaling

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