Hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) are brominated aliphatic cyclic hydrocarbons used
as flame retardants in thermal insulation building materials, upholstery textiles,
and electronics. As a result of their widespread use and their physical and chemical
properties, HBCDs are now ubiquitous contaminants in the environment and humans. This
review summarizes HBCD concentrations in several environmental compartments and analyzes
these data in terms of point sources versus diffuse sources, biomagnification potential,
stereoisomer profiles, time trends, and global distribution. Generally, higher concentrations
were measured in samples (air, sediment, and fish) collected near point sources (plants
producing or processing HBCDs), while lower concentrations were recorded in samples
from locations with no obvious sources of HBCDs. High concentrations were measured
in top predators, such as marine mammals and birds of prey (up to 9600 and 19 200
ng/g lipid weight, respectively), suggesting a biomagnification potential for HBCDs.
Relatively low HBCD concentrations were reported in the few human studies conducted
to date (median values varied between 0.35 and 1.1 ng/g lipid weight). HBCD levels
in biota are increasing slowly and seem to reflect the local market demand. One important
observation is the shiftfrom the high percentage of the gamma-HBCD stereoisomer in
the technical products to a dominance of the alpha-HBCD stereoisomer in biological
samples. A combination of factors such as variations in solubility, partitioning behavior,
uptake, and, possibly, selective metabolism of individual isomers may explain the
observed changes in stereoisomer patterns. Recommendations for further work include
research on how HBCDs are transferred from products into the environment upon production,
use, and disposal. Time trends need to be analyzed more in detail, including HBCD
stereoisomers, and more data on terrestrial organisms are needed, especially for humans.
Whenever possible, HBCDs should be analyzed as individual stereoisomers in order to
address their fate and effects.