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      Sphingolipids and Plant Defense/Disease: The “Death” Connection and Beyond

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          Abstract

          Sphingolipids comprise a major class of structural materials and lipid signaling molecules in all eukaryotic cells. Over the past two decades, there has been a phenomenal growth in the study of sphingolipids (i.e., sphingobiology) at an average rate of ∼1000 research articles per year. Sphingolipid studies in plants, though accounting for only a small fraction (∼6%) of the total number of publications, have also enjoyed proportionally rapid growth in the past decade. Concomitant with the growth of sphingobiology, there has also been tremendous progress in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of plant innate immunity. In this review, we (i) cross examine and analyze the major findings that establish and strengthen the intimate connections between sphingolipid metabolism and plant programmed cell death (PCD) associated with plant defense or disease; (ii) highlight and compare key bioactive sphingolipids involved in the regulation of plant PCD and possibly defense; (iii) discuss the potential role of sphingolipids in polarized membrane/protein trafficking and formation of lipid rafts as subdomains of cell membranes in relation to plant defense; and (iv) where possible, attempt to identify potential parallels for immunity-related mechanisms involving sphingolipids across kingdoms.

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          Most cited references212

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          Sphingosine-1-phosphate: an enigmatic signalling lipid.

          The evolutionarily conserved actions of the sphingolipid metabolite, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), in yeast, plants and mammals have shown that it has important functions. In higher eukaryotes, S1P is the ligand for a family of five G-protein-coupled receptors. These S1P receptors are differentially expressed, coupled to various G proteins, and regulate angiogenesis, vascular maturation, cardiac development and immunity, and are important for directed cell movement.
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            Programmed cell death in the plant immune system.

            Cell death has a central role in innate immune responses in both plants and animals. Besides sharing striking convergences and similarities in the overall evolutionary organization of their innate immune systems, both plants and animals can respond to infection and pathogen recognition with programmed cell death. The fact that plant and animal pathogens have evolved strategies to subvert specific cell death modalities emphasizes the essential role of cell death during immune responses. The hypersensitive response (HR) cell death in plants displays morphological features, molecular architectures and mechanisms reminiscent of different inflammatory cell death types in animals (pyroptosis and necroptosis). In this review, we describe the molecular pathways leading to cell death during innate immune responses. Additionally, we present recently discovered caspase and caspase-like networks regulating cell death that have revealed fascinating analogies between cell death control across both kingdoms.
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              Molecular machinery for non-vesicular trafficking of ceramide.

              Synthesis and sorting of lipids are essential for membrane biogenesis; however, the mechanisms underlying the transport of membrane lipids remain little understood. Ceramide is synthesized at the endoplasmic reticulum and translocated to the Golgi compartment for conversion to sphingomyelin. The main pathway of ceramide transport to the Golgi is genetically impaired in a mammalian mutant cell line, LY-A. Here we identify CERT as the factor defective in LY-A cells. CERT, which is identical to a splicing variant of Goodpasture antigen-binding protein, is a cytoplasmic protein with a phosphatidylinositol-4-monophosphate-binding (PtdIns4P) domain and a putative domain for catalysing lipid transfer. In vitro assays show that this lipid-transfer-catalysing domain specifically extracts ceramide from phospholipid bilayers. CERT expressed in LY-A cells has an amino acid substitution that destroys its PtdIns4P-binding activity, thereby impairing its Golgi-targeting function. We conclude that CERT mediates the intracellular trafficking of ceramide in a non-vesicular manner.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Front Plant Sci
                Front Plant Sci
                Front. Plant Sci.
                Frontiers in plant science
                Frontiers Research Foundation
                1664-462X
                10 April 2012
                2012
                : 3
                : 68
                Affiliations
                [1] 1simpleInstitute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland Rockville, MD, USA
                [2] 2simpleDepartment of Plant Sciences and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland College Park, MD, USA
                Author notes

                Edited by: Xuemin Wang, University of Missouri-St Louis and Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, USA

                Reviewed by: Kian Hématy, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, France; Beatrice Satiat-Jeunemaitre, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France; Carl Ng, University College Dublin, Ireland; Marina Gavilanes-Ruiz, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico; Dominique Roby, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France

                *Correspondence: Shunyuan Xiao, Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland, Rockville, MD 20850, USA. e-mail: xiao@ 123456umd.edu

                This article was submitted to Frontiers in Plant Physiology, a specialty of Frontiers in Plant Science.

                Article
                10.3389/fpls.2012.00068
                3355615
                22639658
                be2a4245-35b1-4f47-9778-8670be886136
                Copyright © 2012 Berkey, Bendigeri and Xiao.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial License, which permits non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in other forums, provided the original authors and source are credited.

                History
                : 03 January 2012
                : 22 March 2012
                Page count
                Figures: 4, Tables: 2, Equations: 0, References: 234, Pages: 22, Words: 21862
                Categories
                Plant Science
                Review Article

                Plant science & Botany
                sphingolipid,lipid raft,arabidopsis,defense,pathogen,programmed cell death,polarized trafficking,hypersensitive response

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