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      Antimicrobial Peptides: Diversity, Mechanism of Action and Strategies to Improve the Activity and Biocompatibility In Vivo

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          Abstract

          Antibiotic resistance is projected as one of the greatest threats to human health in the future and hence alternatives are being explored to combat resistance. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have shown great promise, because use of AMPs leads bacteria to develop no or low resistance. In this review, we discuss the diversity, history and the various mechanisms of action of AMPs. Although many AMPs have reached clinical trials, to date not many have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) due to issues with toxicity, protease cleavage and short half-life. Some of the recent strategies developed to improve the activity and biocompatibility of AMPs, such as chemical modifications and the use of delivery systems, are also reviewed in this article.

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          Defensins: antimicrobial peptides of innate immunity.

          Tomas Ganz (2003)
          The production of natural antibiotic peptides has emerged as an important mechanism of innate immunity in plants and animals. Defensins are diverse members of a large family of antimicrobial peptides, contributing to the antimicrobial action of granulocytes, mucosal host defence in the small intestine and epithelial host defence in the skin and elsewhere. This review, inspired by a spate of recent studies of defensins in human diseases and animal models, focuses on the biological function of defensins.
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            Antimicrobial properties of chitosan and mode of action: a state of the art review.

            Ming Kong, Xi Chen, Ke Xing … (2010)
            Owing to its high biodegradability, and nontoxicity and antimicrobial properties, chitosan is widely-used as an antimicrobial agent either alone or blended with other natural polymers. To broaden chitosan's antimicrobial applicability, comprehensive knowledge of its activity is necessary. The paper reviews the current trend of investigation on antimicrobial activities of chitosan and its mode of action. Chitosan-mediated inhibition is affected by several factors can be classified into four types as intrinsic, environmental, microorganism and physical state, according to their respective roles. In this review, different physical states are comparatively discussed. Mode of antimicrobial action is discussed in parts of the active compound (chitosan) and the target (microorganisms) collectively and independently in same complex. Finally, the general antimicrobial applications of chitosan and perspectives about future studies in this field are considered. Copyright © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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              AMPed up immunity: how antimicrobial peptides have multiple roles in immune defense.

              Yuping Lai, Richard Gallo (2009)
              Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are widely expressed and rapidly induced at epithelial surfaces to repel assault from diverse infectious agents including bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites. Much information suggests that AMPs act by mechanisms that extend beyond their capacity to serve as gene-encoded antibiotics. For example, some AMPs alter the properties of the mammalian membrane or interact with its receptors to influence diverse cellular processes including cytokine release, chemotaxis, antigen presentation, angiogenesis and wound healing. These functions complement their antimicrobial action and favor resolution of infection and repair of damaged epithelia. Opposing this, some microbes have evolved mechanisms to inactivate or avoid AMPs and subsequently become pathogens. Thus, AMPs are multifunctional molecules that have a central role in infection and inflammation.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Biomolecules
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Biomolecules
                Journal ID (publisher-id): biomolecules
                Title: Biomolecules
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 2218-273X
                Publication date (Electronic): 19 January 2018
                Publication date Collection: March 2018
                Volume: 8
                Issue: 1
                Electronic Location Identifier: 4
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada; pkumar02@ 123456chem.ubc.ca
                [2 ]Centre for Blood Research, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Life Sciences Centre, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: jay@ 123456pathology.ubc.ca (J.N.K.); sstraus@ 123456chem.ubc.ca (S.K.S.); Tel.: +1-604-822-7085 (J.N.K.); +1-604-822-2537 (S.K.S.); Fax: +1-604-822-7742 (J.N.K.); +1-604-822-2847 (S.K.S.)
                Article
                Publisher ID: biomolecules-08-00004
                DOI: 10.3390/biom8010004
                PMC ID: 5871973
                PubMed ID: 29351202
                SO-VID: bed120b1-6d0c-4aad-8217-1bd9fee7a205
                Copyright © © 2018 by the authors.
                License:

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 20 December 2017
                Date accepted : 12 January 2018
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                Keywords: antimicrobial peptides,mechanism of action,chemical modification,delivery systems,bioconjugation,biocompatibility,proteolysis
                Data availability:
                Keywords: antimicrobial peptides, mechanism of action, chemical modification, delivery systems, bioconjugation, biocompatibility, proteolysis

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