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      Pathogen-induced changes in floral scent may increase honeybee-mediated dispersal of Erwinia amylovora

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          Abstract

          Honeybees are well recognised for their key role in plant reproduction as pollinators. On the other hand, their activity may vector some pathogens, such as the bacterium Erwinia amylovora , the causative agent of fire blight disease in pomaceous plants. In this research, we evaluated whether honeybees are able to discriminate between healthy and E. amylovora -infected flowers, thus altering the dispersal of the pathogen. For this reason, honeybees were previously trained to forage either on inoculated or healthy (control) apple flower. After the training, the two honeybee groups were equally exposed to inoculated and control flowering apple plants. To assess their preference, three independent methods were used: (1) direct count of visiting bees per time frame; (2) incidence on apple flowers of a marker bacterium ( Pantoea agglomerans , strain P10c) carried by foragers; (3) quantification of E. amylovora populations in the collected pollen loads, proportional to the number of visits to infected flowers. The results show that both honeybee groups preferred control flowers over inoculated ones. The characterisation of volatile compounds released by flowers revealed a different emission of several bioactive compounds, providing an explanation for honeybee preference. As an unexpected ecological consequence, the influence of infection on floral scent increasing the visit rate on healthy flowers may promote a secondary bacterial spread.

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          Long-distance signalling in plant defence.

          Plants use inducible defence mechanisms to fend off harmful organisms. Resistance that is induced in response to local attack is often expressed systemically, that is, in organs that are not yet damaged. In the search for translocated defence signals, biochemical studies follow the physical movement of putative signals, and grafting experiments use mutants that are impaired in the production or perception of these signals. Long-distance signals can directly activate defence or can prime for the stronger and faster induction of defence. Historically, research has focused on the vascular transport of signalling metabolites, but volatiles can play a crucial role as well. We compare the advantages and constraints of vascular and airborne signals for the plant, and discuss how they can act in synergy to achieve optimised resistance in distal plant parts.
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            Chemical and molecular ecology of herbivore-induced plant volatiles: proximate factors and their ultimate functions.

            In response to herbivory, plants emit specific blends of herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs). HIPVs mediate sizable arrays of interactions between plants and arthropods, microorganisms, undamaged neighboring plants or undamaged sites within the plant in various ecosystems. HIPV profiles vary according to the plant and herbivore species, and the developmental stages and conditions of the live plants and herbivores. To understand the regulatory mechanisms underling HIPV biosynthesis, the following issues are reviewed here: (i) herbivore-induced formation of plant volatile terpenoids and green leaf volatiles; (ii) initial activation of plant responses by feeding herbivores; and (iii) the downstream network of the signal transduction. To understand the ecological significance of HIPVs, we also review case studies of insect-plant and inter-/intraplant interactions mediated by HIPVs that have been documented in the field and laboratory in recent years.
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              Evolution of virulence in opportunistic pathogens: generalism, plasticity, and control

              Standard virulence evolution theory assumes that virulence factors are maintained because they aid parasitic exploitation, increasing growth within and/or transmission between hosts. An increasing number of studies now demonstrate that many opportunistic pathogens (OPs) do not conform to these assumptions, with virulence factors maintained instead because of advantages in non-parasitic contexts. Here we review virulence evolution theory in the context of OPs and highlight the importance of incorporating environments outside a focal virulence site. We illustrate that virulence selection is constrained by correlations between these external and focal settings and pinpoint drivers of key environmental correlations, with a focus on generalist strategies and phenotypic plasticity. We end with a summary of key theoretical and empirical challenges to be met for a fuller understanding of OPs.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                The ISME Journal
                ISME J
                Springer Science and Business Media LLC
                1751-7362
                1751-7370
                April 2019
                November 30 2018
                April 2019
                : 13
                : 4
                : 847-859
                Article
                10.1038/s41396-018-0319-2
                6461938
                30504898
                bff1f260-40ce-4311-8db7-c71b2f3759d1
                © 2019

                http://www.springer.com/tdm

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