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      How Can Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Be Used to Modulate Episodic Memory?: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

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          Abstract

          A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to synthesize the existing literature on how transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has been used to modulate episodic memory. Given the numerous parameters of TMS protocols and experimental design characteristics that can be manipulated, a mechanistic understanding of how changes in the combination of parameters (e.g., frequency, timing, intensity, targeted brain region, memory task) modulate episodic memory is needed. To address this, we reviewed 59 studies and conducted a meta-analysis on 245 effect sizes from 37 articles on healthy younger adults ( N = 1,061). Analyses revealed generally more beneficial effects of 1-Hz rTMS vs. other frequencies on episodic memory. Moderation analyses revealed complex interactions as online 20-Hz rTMS protocols led to negative effects, while offline 20-Hz rTMS led to enhancing effects. There was also an interaction between stimulation intensity and frequency as 20-Hz rTMS had more negative effects when applied below- vs. at-motor threshold. Conversely, 1-Hz rTMS had more beneficial effects than other frequencies when applied below- vs. at- or above-motor threshold. No reliable aggregate or hypothesized interactions were found when assessing stimulation site (frontal vs. parietal cortex, left vs. right hemisphere), stimulated memory process (during encoding vs. retrieval), the type of retrieval (associative/recollection vs. item/familiarity), or the type of control comparison (active vs. sham or no TMS) on episodic memory. However, there is insufficient data to make strong inference based on the lack of aggregate or two-way interactions between these factors, or to assess more complex (e.g., 3-way) interactions. We reviewed the effects on other populations (healthy older adults and clinical populations), but systematic comparison of parameters was also prevented due to insufficient data. A database of parameters and effects sizes is available as an open source repository so that data from studies can be continuously accumulated in order to facilitate future meta-analysis. In conclusion, modulating episodic memory relies on complex interactions among the numerous moderator variables that can be manipulated. Therefore, rigorous, systematic comparisons need to be further investigated as the body of literature grows in order to fully understand the combination of parameters that lead to enhancing, detrimental or null effects on episodic memory.

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          Most cited references106

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          Episodic memory: from mind to brain.

          Episodic memory is a neurocognitive (brain/mind) system, uniquely different from other memory systems, that enables human beings to remember past experiences. The notion of episodic memory was first proposed some 30 years ago. At that time it was defined in terms of materials and tasks. It was subsequently refined and elaborated in terms of ideas such as self, subjective time, and autonoetic consciousness. This chapter provides a brief history of the concept of episodic memory, describes how it has changed (indeed greatly changed) since its inception, considers criticisms of it, and then discusses supporting evidence provided by (a) neuropsychological studies of patterns of memory impairment caused by brain damage, and (b) functional neuroimaging studies of patterns of brain activity of normal subjects engaged in various memory tasks. I also suggest that episodic memory is a true, even if as yet generally unappreciated, marvel of nature.
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            Memory and consciousness.

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              Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory.

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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Psychol
                Front Psychol
                Front. Psychol.
                Frontiers in Psychology
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1664-1078
                13 June 2019
                2019
                : 10
                : 993
                Affiliations
                Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame , Notre Dame, IN, United States
                Author notes

                Edited by: Vincenzo Romei, University of Bologna, Italy

                Reviewed by: Didac Vidal Piñeiro, University of Oslo, Norway; Juha Silvanto, University of Westminster, United Kingdom; Arjan Blokland, Maastricht University, Netherlands

                *Correspondence: Nicholas Yeh nyeh@ 123456nd.edu

                This article was submitted to Consciousness Research, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology

                Article
                10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00993
                6584914
                31263433
                c0492683-c2fa-4663-aae6-9598844f4102
                Copyright © 2019 Yeh and Rose.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 07 September 2018
                : 15 April 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 5, Tables: 7, Equations: 5, References: 126, Pages: 35, Words: 25328
                Categories
                Psychology
                Systematic Review

                Clinical Psychology & Psychiatry
                non-invasive brain stimulation,transcranial magnetic stimulation,repetitive tms,theta-burst stimulation,episodic memory,recall,recognition

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