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      Daily physical activity is negatively associated with thyroid hormone levels, inflammation, and immune system markers among men and women in the NHANES dataset

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          Abstract

          The acute effects of exercise on metabolic energy expenditure and inflammation are well studied, but the long-term effects of regular daily physical activity on metabolic and endocrine effects are less clear. Further, prior studies investigating the impact of daily physical activity in large cohorts have generally relied on self-reported activity. Here, we used the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) to investigate the relationship between daily physical activity and both thyroid and immune activity. Daily physical activity was assessed through accelerometry or accelerometry-validated survey responses. Thyroid activity was assessed from circulating levels of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and thyroxine (T4). Immune function was assessed from circulating cytokines (C-reactive protein [CRP], immunoglobulin E [IgE], fibrinogen) and blood cell counts. In general linear models including body mass index, age, gender, activity and TSH as factors, active adults had a lower levels of T4 and reduced slope of the TSH:T4 relationship. Similarly, greater physical activity was associated with lower CRP and fibrinogen levels (but not IgE) and lower white blood cell, basophil, monocyte, neutrophil, and eosinophil (but not lymphocyte) counts. Daily physical activity was also associated with lower prevalence of clinically elevated CRP, WBC, and lymphocytes in a dose-response manner. These results underscore the long-term impact of daily physical activity on both systemic metabolic activity (thyroid) and on specific physiological tasks (immune). The regulatory effects of physical activity on other bodily systems are clinically relevant and should be incorporated into public health strategies promoting exercise.

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          Position statement. Part one: Immune function and exercise.

          An ever-growing volume of peer-reviewed publications speaks to the recent and rapid growth in both scope and understanding of exercise immunology. Indeed, more than 95% of all peer-reviewed publications in exercise immunology (currently >2, 200 publications using search terms "exercise" and "immune") have been published since the formation of the International Society of Exercise and Immunology (ISEI) in 1989 (ISI Web of Knowledge). We recognise the epidemiological distinction between the generic term "physical activity" and the specific category of "exercise", which implies activity for a specific purpose such as improvement of physical condition or competition. Extreme physical activity of any type may have implications for the immune system. However, because of its emotive component, exercise is likely to have a larger effect, and to date the great majority of our knowledge on this subject comes from exercise studies. In this position statement, a panel of world-leading experts provides a consensus of current knowledge, briefly covering the background, explaining what we think we know with some degree of certainty, exploring continued controversies, and pointing to likely directions for future research. Part one of this position statement focuses on 'immune function and exercise' and part two on 'maintaining immune health'. Part one provides a brief introduction and history (Roy Shephard) followed by sections on: respiratory infections and exercise (Maree Gleeson); cellular innate immune function and exercise (Jeffrey Woods); acquired immunity and exercise (Nicolette Bishop); mucosal immunity and exercise (Michael Gleeson and Nicolette Bishop); immunological methods in exercise immunology (Monika Fleshner); anti-inflammatory effects of physical activity (Charlotte Green and Bente Pedersen); exercise and cancer (Laurie Hoffman-Goetz and Connie Rogers) and finally, "omics" in exercise (Hinnak Northoff, Asghar Abbasi and Perikles Simon). The focus on respiratory infections in exercise has been stimulated by the commonly held beliefs that the frequency of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) is increased in elite endurance athletes after single bouts of ultra-endurance exercise and during periods of intensive training. The evidence to support these concepts is inconclusive, but supports the idea that exercised-induced immune suppression increases susceptibility to symptoms of infection, particularly around the time of competition, and that upper respiratory symptoms are associated with performance decrements. Conclusions from the debate on whether sore throats are actually caused by infections or are a reflection of other inflammatory stimuli associated with exercise remains unclear. It is widely accepted that acute and chronic exercise alter the number and function of circulating cells of the innate immune system (e.g. neutrophils, monocytes and natural killer (NK) cells). A limited number of animal studies has helped us determine the extent to which these changes alter susceptibility to herpes simplex and influenza virus infection. Unfortunately, we have only 'scratched the surface' regarding whether exercise-induced changes in innate immune function alter infectious disease susceptibility or outcome and whether the purported anti-inflammatory effect of regular exercise is mediated through exercise-induced effects on innate immune cells. We need to know whether exercise alters migration of innate cells and whether this alters disease susceptibility. Although studies in humans have shed light on monocytes, these cells are relatively immature and may not reflect the effects of exercise on fully differentiated tissue macrophages. Currently, there is very little information on the effects of exercise on dendritic cells, which is unfortunate given the powerful influence of these cells in the initiation of immune responses. It is agreed that a lymphocytosis is observed during and immediately after exercise, proportional to exercise intensity and duration, with numbers of cells (T cells and to a lesser extent B cells) falling below pre-exercise levels during the early stages of recovery, before returning to resting values normally within 24 h. Mobilization of T and B cell subsets in this way is largely influenced by the actions of catecholamines. Evidence indicates that acute exercise stimulates T cell subset activation in vivo and in response to mitogen- and antigen-stimulation. Although numerous studies report decreased mitogen- and antigen-stimulated T cell proliferation following acute exercise, the interpretation of these findings may be confounded by alterations in the relative proportion of cells (e.g. T, B and NK cells) in the circulation that can respond to stimulation. Longitudinal training studies in previously sedentary people have failed to show marked changes in T and B cell functions provided that blood samples were taken at least 24 h after the last exercise bout. In contrast, T and B cell functions appear to be sensitive to increases in training load in well-trained athletes, with decreases in circulating numbers of Type 1 T cells, reduced T cell proliferative responses and falls in stimulated B cell Ig synthesis. The cause of this apparent depression in acquired immunity appears to be related to elevated circulating stress hormones, and alterations in the pro/anti-inflammatory cytokine balance in response to exercise. The clinical significance of these changes in acquired immunity with acute exercise and training remains unknown. The production of secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA) is the major effector function of the mucosal immune system providing the 'first line of defence' against pathogens. To date, the majority of exercise studies have assessed saliva SIgA as a marker of mucosal immunity, but more recently the importance of other antimicrobial proteins in saliva (e.g. alpha-amylase, lactoferrin and lysozyme) has gained greater recognition. Acute bouts of moderate exercise have little impact on mucosal immunity but prolonged exercise and intensified training can evoke decreases in saliva secretion of SIgA. Mechanisms underlying the alterations in mucosal immunity with acute exercise are probably largely related to the activation of the sympathetic nervous system and its associated effects on salivary protein exocytosis and IgA transcytosis. Depressed secretion of SIgA into saliva during periods of intensified training and chronic stress are likely linked to altered activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, with inhibitory effects on IgA synthesis and/or transcytosis. Consensus exists that reduced levels of saliva SIgA are associated with increased risk of URTI during heavy training. An important question for exercise immunologists remains: how does one measure immune function in a meaningful way? One approach to assessing immune function that extends beyond blood or salivary measures involves challenging study participants with antigenic stimuli and assessing relevant antigen-driven responses including antigen specific cell-mediated delayed type hypersensitivity responses, or circulating antibody responses. Investigators can inject novel antigens such as keyhole limpet haemocyanin (KLH) to assess development of a primary antibody response (albeit only once) or previously seen antigens such as influenza, where the subsequent antibody response reflects a somewhat more variable mixture of primary, secondary and tertiary responses. Using a novel antigen has the advantage that the investigator can identify the effects of exercise stress on the unique cellular events required for a primary response that using a previously seen antigen (e.g. influenza) does not permit. The results of exercise studies using these approaches indicate that an acute bout of intense exercise suppresses antibody production (e.g. anti-KLH Ig) whereas moderate exercise training can restore optimal antibody responses in the face of stressors and ageing. Because immune function is critical to host survival, the system has evolved a large safety net and redundancy such that it is difficult to determine how much immune function must be lost or gained to reveal changes in host disease susceptibility. There are numerous examples where exercise alters measures of immunity by 15-25%. Whether changes of this magnitude are sufficient to alter host defence, disease susceptibility or severity remains debatable. Chronic inflammation is involved in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance, atherosclerosis, neurodegeneration, and tumour growth. Evidence suggests that the prophylactic effect of exercise may, to some extent, be ascribed to the anti-inflammatory effect of regular exercise mediated via a reduction in visceral fat mass and/or by induction of an anti-inflammatory environment with each bout of exercise (e.g. via increases in circulating anti-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-1 receptor antagonist and IL-10). To understand the mechanism(s) of the protective, anti-inflammatory effect of exercise fully, we need to focus on the nature of exercise that is most efficient at allieviating the effects of chronic inflammation in disease. The beneficial effects of endurance exercise are well known; however, the antiinflammatory role of strength training exercises are poorly defined. In addition, the independent contribution of an exercise-induced reduction in visceral fat versus other exercise-induced anti-inflammatory mechanisms needs to be understood better. There is consensus that exercise training protects against some types of cancers. Training also enhances aspects of anti-tumour immunity and reduces inflammatory mediators. However, the evidence linking immunological and inflammatory mechanisms, physical activity, and cancer risk reduction remains tentative. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)
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            The anti-inflammatory effects of exercise: mechanisms and implications for the prevention and treatment of disease.

            Regular exercise reduces the risk of chronic metabolic and cardiorespiratory diseases, in part because exercise exerts anti-inflammatory effects. However, these effects are also likely to be responsible for the suppressed immunity that makes elite athletes more susceptible to infections. The anti-inflammatory effects of regular exercise may be mediated via both a reduction in visceral fat mass (with a subsequent decreased release of adipokines) and the induction of an anti-inflammatory environment with each bout of exercise. In this Review, we focus on the known mechanisms by which exercise - both acute and chronic - exerts its anti-inflammatory effects, and we discuss the implications of these effects for the prevention and treatment of disease.
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              Relationship between physical activity and inflammation among apparently healthy middle-aged and older US adults.

              Physical activity has been associated with a reduced risk of coronary heart disease, but the mechanism underlying this association is unclear. Because coronary heart disease is increasingly seen as an inflammatory process, it might be reasonable to hypothesize that physical activity reduces risk of coronary heart disease by reducing or preventing inflammation. The study examined the relationship between physical activity and elevated inflammation as indicated by a high C-reactive protein level, white blood cell count, or fibrinogen level. Study subjects were 3638 apparently healthy US men and women 40 years and older who participated in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. More frequent physical activity was independently associated with a lower odds of having an elevated C-reactive protein level. Compared with those engaging in physical activity 0 to 3 times per month, the odds of having an elevated C-reactive protein level was reduced among those engaging in physical activity 4 to 21 times per month (odds ratio, 0.77; 95% confidence interval, 0.58-1.02) and 22 or more times per month (odds ratio, 0.63; 95% confidence interval, 0.43-0.93) (P for trend,.02). Similar associations were seen for white blood cell count and fibrinogen levels. More frequent physical activity is independently associated with a lower odds of having elevated inflammation levels among apparently healthy US adults 40 years and older, independent of several confounding factors. The results suggest that the association between physical activity and reduced coronary heart disease risk may be mediated by anti-inflammatory effects of regular physical activity.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Formal analysisRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS One
                plos
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                6 July 2022
                2022
                : 17
                : 7
                : e0270221
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Trinity College, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
                [2 ] Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
                [3 ] Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
                Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, ITALY
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1250-150X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3689-5892
                Article
                PONE-D-22-03932
                10.1371/journal.pone.0270221
                9258892
                35793317
                c15f980d-4f2e-461a-afcd-4dd2c368ef1f
                © 2022 Klasson et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 8 February 2022
                : 6 June 2022
                Page count
                Figures: 5, Tables: 3, Pages: 15
                Funding
                The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Public and Occupational Health
                Physical Activity
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Biochemistry
                Hormones
                Peptide Hormones
                Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Biochemistry
                Hormones
                Thyroid Hormones
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Immunology
                Immune Response
                Inflammation
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Immunology
                Immune Response
                Inflammation
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Clinical Medicine
                Signs and Symptoms
                Inflammation
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Biochemistry
                Glycobiology
                Glycoproteins
                Fibrinogen
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Cell Biology
                Cellular Types
                Animal Cells
                Blood Cells
                White Blood Cells
                Lymphocytes
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Cell Biology
                Cellular Types
                Animal Cells
                Immune Cells
                White Blood Cells
                Lymphocytes
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Immunology
                Immune Cells
                White Blood Cells
                Lymphocytes
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Immunology
                Immune Cells
                White Blood Cells
                Lymphocytes
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Public and Occupational Health
                Physical Activity
                Physical Fitness
                Exercise
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Sports and Exercise Medicine
                Exercise
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Sports Science
                Sports and Exercise Medicine
                Exercise
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Biochemistry
                Proteins
                C-Reactive Proteins
                Custom metadata
                The data is publicly available on the CDC's website within the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey section. Further, the authors have included a supplemental file that contains instructions for the R code constructed for the analysis, and a link to a public OSF file ( https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/KA73F) that has the R code as well as all of the necessary accompanying files.

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