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      Antimicrobial use in aquaculture re-examined: its relevance to antimicrobial resistance and to animal and human health : Aquacultural antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance

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          Abstract

          The worldwide growth of aquaculture has been accompanied by a rapid increase in therapeutic and prophylactic usage of antimicrobials including those important in human therapeutics. Approximately 80% of antimicrobials used in aquaculture enter the environment with their activity intact where they select for bacteria whose resistance arises from mutations or more importantly, from mobile genetic elements containing multiple resistance determinants transmissible to other bacteria. Such selection alters biodiversity in aquatic environments and the normal flora of fish and shellfish. The commonality of the mobilome (the total of all mobile genetic elements in a genome) between aquatic and terrestrial bacteria together with the presence of residual antimicrobials, biofilms, and high concentrations of bacteriophages where the aquatic environment may also be contaminated with pathogens of human and animal origin can stimulate exchange of genetic information between aquatic and terrestrial bacteria. Several recently found genetic elements and resistance determinants for quinolones, tetracyclines, and β-lactamases are shared between aquatic bacteria, fish pathogens, and human pathogens, and appear to have originated in aquatic bacteria. Excessive use of antimicrobials in aquaculture can thus potentially negatively impact animal and human health as well as the aquatic environment and should be better assessed and regulated. © 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd and Society for Applied Microbiology.

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          A common mechanism of cellular death induced by bactericidal antibiotics.

          Antibiotic mode-of-action classification is based upon drug-target interaction and whether the resultant inhibition of cellular function is lethal to bacteria. Here we show that the three major classes of bactericidal antibiotics, regardless of drug-target interaction, stimulate the production of highly deleterious hydroxyl radicals in Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, which ultimately contribute to cell death. We also show, in contrast, that bacteriostatic drugs do not produce hydroxyl radicals. We demonstrate that the mechanism of hydroxyl radical formation induced by bactericidal antibiotics is the end product of an oxidative damage cellular death pathway involving the tricarboxylic acid cycle, a transient depletion of NADH, destabilization of iron-sulfur clusters, and stimulation of the Fenton reaction. Our results suggest that all three major classes of bactericidal drugs can be potentiated by targeting bacterial systems that remediate hydroxyl radical damage, including proteins involved in triggering the DNA damage response, e.g., RecA.
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            Call of the wild: antibiotic resistance genes in natural environments.

            Antibiotic-resistant pathogens are profoundly important to human health, but the environmental reservoirs of resistance determinants are poorly understood. The origins of antibiotic resistance in the environment is relevant to human health because of the increasing importance of zoonotic diseases as well as the need for predicting emerging resistant pathogens. This Review explores the presence and spread of antibiotic resistance in non-agricultural, non-clinical environments and demonstrates the need for more intensive investigation on this subject.
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              The microbial pan-genome.

              A decade after the beginning of the genomic era, the question of how genomics can describe a bacterial species has not been fully addressed. Experimental data have shown that in some species new genes are discovered even after sequencing the genomes of several strains. Mathematical modeling predicts that new genes will be discovered even after sequencing hundreds of genomes per species. Therefore, a bacterial species can be described by its pan-genome, which is composed of a "core genome" containing genes present in all strains, and a "dispensable genome" containing genes present in two or more strains and genes unique to single strains. Given that the number of unique genes is vast, the pan-genome of a bacterial species might be orders of magnitude larger than any single genome.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Environmental Microbiology
                Environ Microbiol
                Wiley
                14622912
                July 2013
                July 2013
                May 26 2013
                : 15
                : 7
                : 1917-1942
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Microbiology and Immunology; New York Medical College; Valhalla; NY; 10595; USA
                [2 ]Department of Pathology; New York Medical College; Valhalla; NY; 10595; USA
                [3 ]Instituto de Farmacia, Facultad de Ciencias; Universidad Austral de Chile; Valdivia; Chile
                [4 ]Centro i∼mar; Universidad de Los Lagos; Puerto Montt; Chile
                Article
                10.1111/1462-2920.12134
                23711078
                c340cb28-e674-4c67-a222-ad6b24240d69
                © 2013

                http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tdm_license_1.1

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