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      A Review of Eight High-Priority, Economically Important Viral Pathogens of Poultry within the Caribbean Region

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          Abstract

          Viral pathogens cause devastating economic losses in poultry industries worldwide. The Caribbean region, which boasts some of the highest rates of poultry consumption in the world, is no exception. This review summarizes evidence for the circulation and spread of eight high-priority, economically important poultry viruses across the Caribbean region. Avian influenza virus (AIV), infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), Newcastle disease virus (NDV), infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV), avian metapneumovirus (aMPV), infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), fowl adenovirus group 1 (FADV Gp1), and egg drop syndrome virus (EDSV) were selected for review. This review of serological, molecular, and phylogenetic studies across Caribbean countries reveals evidence for sporadic outbreaks of respiratory disease caused by notifiable viral pathogens (AIV, IBV, NDV, and ILTV), as well as outbreaks of diseases caused by immunosuppressive viral pathogens (IBDV and FADV Gp1). This review highlights the need to strengthen current levels of surveillance and reporting for poultry diseases in domestic and wild bird populations across the Caribbean, as well as the need to strengthen the diagnostic capacity and capability of Caribbean national veterinary diagnostic laboratories.

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          Coronavirus avian infectious bronchitis virus.

          Dave Cavanagh (2007)
          Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), the coronavirus of the chicken (Gallus gallus), is one of the foremost causes of economic loss within the poultry industry, affecting the performance of both meat-type and egg-laying birds. The virus replicates not only in the epithelium of upper and lower respiratory tract tissues, but also in many tissues along the alimentary tract and elsewhere e.g. kidney, oviduct and testes. It can be detected in both respiratory and faecal material. There is increasing evidence that IBV can infect species of bird other than the chicken. Interestingly breeds of chicken vary with respect to the severity of infection with IBV, which may be related to the immune response. Probably the major reason for the high profile of IBV is the existence of a very large number of serotypes. Both live and inactivated IB vaccines are used extensively, the latter requiring priming by the former. Their effectiveness is diminished by poor cross-protection. The nature of the protective immune response to IBV is poorly understood. What is known is that the surface spike protein, indeed the amino-terminal S1 half, is sufficient to induce good protective immunity. There is increasing evidence that only a few amino acid differences amongst S proteins are sufficient to have a detrimental impact on cross-protection. Experimental vector IB vaccines and genetically manipulated IBVs--with heterologous spike protein genes--have produced promising results, including in the context of in ovo vaccination.
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            Genetic reassortment of avian, swine, and human influenza A viruses in American pigs.

            N N Zhou, D Senne, J S Landgraf … (1999)
            In late summer through early winter of 1998, there were several outbreaks of respiratory disease in the swine herds of North Carolina, Texas, Minnesota, and Iowa. Four viral isolates from outbreaks in different states were analyzed genetically. Genotyping and phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that the four swine viruses had emerged through two different pathways. The North Carolina isolate is the product of genetic reassortment between H3N2 human and classic swine H1N1 influenza viruses, while the others arose from reassortment of human H3N2, classic swine H1N1, and avian viral genes. The hemagglutinin genes of the four isolates were all derived from the human H3N2 virus circulating in 1995. It remains to be determined if either of these recently emerged viruses will become established in the pigs in North America and whether they will become an economic burden.
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              Detection and differentiation of avian adenoviruses: a review.

              M. Hess (2000)
              Avian adenoviruses are a very diverse group of pathogens causing a variety of problems for poultry production. For a long time, the diagnosis of an adenovirus infection was restricted to the isolation of the respective virus followed by various serological typing methods, such as immunofluorescence assay, neutralization test or haemagglutination-inhibition test. In addition, restriction enzyme analysis has been reported for differentiation of avian adenoviruses. Besides summarizing the classical diagnostic methods, this review is mainly focused on the challenges that occurred recently in the field of avian adenovirus diagnosis at the molecular level. Several polymerase chain reactions (PCRs) have been published to diagnose all three groups of avian adenoviruses. Most PCRs were established to detect fowl adenovirus (FAV) DNA. Some of them were combined with restriction enzyme analysis to investigate whether FAV reference strains and field isolates could be typed according to the restriction profiles of the PCR products. The great advantage of direct detection of the viral DNA in tissue samples was demonstrated for the haemorrhagic enteritis virus and egg drop syndrome virus. Other PCRs were developed with the aim of detecting viral DNA from all three groups of avian adenoviruses partially in target cells. Whereas the value of these PCRs for avian adenovirus diagnostics is not disputable, the problems and open questions that are still present are also discussed.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Vet Sci
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Vet Sci
                Journal ID (publisher-id): vetsci
                Title: Veterinary Sciences
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 2306-7381
                Publication date (Electronic): 26 January 2018
                Publication date Collection: March 2018
                Volume: 5
                Issue: 1
                Electronic Location Identifier: 14
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Basic Veterinary Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, The University of the West Indies (St. Augustine), Eric Williams Medical Sciences Complex, Mount Hope, Trinidad and Tobago; brown.arianne@ 123456gmail.com
                [2 ]Belize Poultry Association, Belmopan, Belize; bz.victor@ 123456gmail.com
                [3 ]Veterinary Services Laboratory, Guyana Livestock Development Authority, Agriculture Road, Mon Repos, East Coast Demerara; danehart2002@ 123456yahoo.com
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: chris.oura@ 123456sta.uwi.edu or ourachris@ 123456gmail.com ; Tel.: +1-868-645-3232
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4146-3920
                Article
                Publisher ID: vetsci-05-00014
                DOI: 10.3390/vetsci5010014
                PMC ID: 5876562
                PubMed ID: 29373488
                SO-VID: c38bf31b-a68a-48a1-be21-0eda161dd473
                Copyright © © 2018 by the authors.
                License:

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 14 December 2017
                Date accepted : 23 January 2018
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                Keywords: caribbean,avian influenza virus,infectious bronchitis virus,newcastle disease virus,infectious laryngotracheitis virus,avian metapneumovirus,infectious bursal disease,fowl adenovirus group 1,egg drop syndrome virus
                Data availability:
                Keywords: caribbean, avian influenza virus, infectious bronchitis virus, newcastle disease virus, infectious laryngotracheitis virus, avian metapneumovirus, infectious bursal disease, fowl adenovirus group 1, egg drop syndrome virus

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