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      Systematic Search Using the Proknow-C Method for the Characterization of Atmospheric Particulate Matter Using the Materials Science Techniques XRD, FTIR, XRF, and Raman Spectroscopy

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      Sustainability
      MDPI AG

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          Abstract

          Particulate matter (PM), particle pollution that can travel long distances, is a big concern because it contains liquid droplets or microscopic solids resulting in significant health issues such as respirational and cancer problems. Therefore, the characterization of these particles is very significant as a hazard to public health. PM can be identified by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectroscopy (RS), both powerful and non-destructive technologies. RS, in particular, allows the identification of black carbon, considered one of the pollutants with the greatest influence on climate change. Another important technology for the evaluation of inorganic and organic functional groups present in PM compounds is the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). X-ray fluorescence (XRF) provides elemental analysis, revealing, in many cases, the original source of the sample. In order to understand the current state of the art, the Proknow-C method was applied to track the most recent information on PM characterization. Aspects such as sample collection, filter material, characterization parameters, PM components, and the advantages and limitations of each technique are discussed. PM minerals are found to be composed of silicates, oxides, sulfates, and carbonates. The elemental components of PM are classified into five categories: marine aerosol, mineral material, anthropogenic elements, organic carbon, and elemental carbon. The XRD technique is a powerful, fast, and non-destructive tool to identify various minerals present in PM. On the other hand, the XRF technique requires minimal sample treatment, but its sensitivity is limited for the determination of trace metals and some relevant environmental elements. FTIR spectroscopy is able to identify and quantify all organic functional groups present in atmospheric PM. Despite its advantages, a proper choice of calibration method is crucial to ensure its effectiveness. RS is fast and simple, although it only detects Raman-active functional groups. These are some of the advantages and limitations of these techniques addressed in the following review article.

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          Characterisation of PM10 and PM2.5 particulate matter in the ambient air of Milan (Italy)

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            Material and structural characterization of alkali activated low-calcium brown coal fly ash.

            The waste low-calcium Czech brown coal fly ash represents a considerable environmental burden due to the quantities produced and the potentially high content of leachable heavy metals. The heterogeneous microstucture of the geopolymer M(n) [-(Si-O)(z)-Al-O](n).wH(2)O, that forms during the alkaline activation, was examined by means of microcalorimetry, XRD, TGA, DSC, MIP, FTIR, NMR MAS ((29)Si, (27)Al, (23)Na), ESEM, EDS, and EBSD. The leaching of heavy metals and the evolution of compressive strength were also monitored. The analysis of raw fly ash identified a number of different morphologies, unequal distribution of elements, Fe-rich rim, high internal porosity, and minor crystalline phases of mullite and quartz. Microcalorimetry revealed exothermic reactions with dependence on the activator alkalinity. The activation energy of the geopolymerization process was determined as 86.2kJ/mol. The X-ray diffraction analysis revealed no additional crystalline phases associated with geopolymer formation. Over several weeks, the (29)Si NMR spectrum testified a high degree of polymerization and Al penetration into the SiO(4) tetrahedra. The (23)Na NMR MAS spectrum hypothesized that sodium is bound in the form of Na(H(2)O)(n) rather than Na(+), thus causing efflorescence in a moisture-gradient environment. As and Cr(6+) are weakly bonded in the geopolymer matrix, while excellent immobilization of Zn(2+), Cu(2+), Cd(2+), and Cr(3+) are reported.
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              A Handbook of Silicate Rock Analysis

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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                (View ORCID Profile)
                (View ORCID Profile)
                Journal
                SUSTDE
                Sustainability
                Sustainability
                MDPI AG
                2071-1050
                June 2023
                May 24 2023
                : 15
                : 11
                : 8504
                Article
                10.3390/su15118504
                c3be50ad-b32b-4f21-877e-2475def97d01
                © 2023

                https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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