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      Restructuring the Cellular Responses: Connecting Microbial Intervention With Ecological Fitness and Adaptiveness to the Maize ( Zea mays L.) Grown in Saline–Sodic Soil

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          Abstract

          Salt stress hampers plant growth and development. It is now becoming one of the most important threats to agricultural productivity. Rhizosphere microorganisms play key roles in modulating cellular responses and enable plant tolerant to salt stress, but the detailed mechanisms of how this occurs need in-depth investigation. The present study elucidated that the microbe-mediated restructuring of the cellular responses leads to ecological fitness and adaptiveness to the maize ( Zea mays L.) grown in saline–sodic soil. In the present study, effects of seed biopriming with B. safensis MF-01, B. altitudinis MF-15, and B. velezensis MF-08 singly and in consortium on different growth parameters were recorded. Soil biochemical and enzymatic analyses were performed. The activity and gene expression of High-Affinity K + Transporter ( ZmHKT-1), Sodium/Hydrogen exchanger 1 ( zmNHX1), and antioxidant enzymes ( ZmAPX1.2, ZmBADH-1, ZmCAT, ZmMPK5, ZmMPK7, and ZmCPK11) were studied. The expression of genes related to lateral root development ( ZmHO-1, ZmGSL-1, and ZmGSL-3) and root architecture were also carried out. Seeds bioprimed with consortium of all three strains have been shown to confer increased seed germination (23.34–26.31%) and vigor indices (vigor index I: 38.71–53.68% and vigor index II: 74.11–82.43%) as compared to untreated control plant grown in saline–sodic soil at 30 days of sowing. Results indicated that plants treated with consortium of three strains induced early production of adventitious roots (tips: 4889.29, forks: 7951.57, and crossings: 2296.45) in maize compared to plants primed with single strains and untreated control (tips: 2019.25, forks: 3021.45, and crossings: 388.36), which was further confirmed by assessing the transcript level of ZmHO-1 (7.20 folds), ZmGSL-1 (4.50 folds), and ZmGSL-3 (12.00 folds) genes using the qPCR approach. The uptake and translocation of Na +, K +, and Ca 2+ significantly varied in the plants treated with bioagents alone or in consortium. qRT-PCR analysis also revealed that the ZmHKT-1 and zmNHX1 expression levels varied significantly in the maize root upon inoculation and showed a 6- to 11-fold increase in the plants bioprimed with all the three strains in combination. Further, the activity and gene expression levels of antioxidant enzymes were significantly higher in the leaves of maize subjected seed biopriming with bioagents individually or in combination (3.50- to 12.00-fold). Our research indicated that ZmHKT-1 and zmNHX1 expression could effectively enhance salt tolerance by maintaining an optimal Na +/K + balance and increasing the antioxidant activity that keeps reactive oxygen species at a low accumulation level. Interestingly, up-regulation of ZmHKT-1, NHX1, ZmHO-1, ZmGSL-1, and ZmGSL-3 and genes encoding antioxidants regulates the cellular responses that could effectively enhance the adaptiveness and ultimately leads to better plant growth and grain production in the maize crop grown in saline–sodic soil.

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          Analysis of relative gene expression data using real-time quantitative PCR and the 2(-Delta Delta C(T)) Method.

          The two most commonly used methods to analyze data from real-time, quantitative PCR experiments are absolute quantification and relative quantification. Absolute quantification determines the input copy number, usually by relating the PCR signal to a standard curve. Relative quantification relates the PCR signal of the target transcript in a treatment group to that of another sample such as an untreated control. The 2(-Delta Delta C(T)) method is a convenient way to analyze the relative changes in gene expression from real-time quantitative PCR experiments. The purpose of this report is to present the derivation, assumptions, and applications of the 2(-Delta Delta C(T)) method. In addition, we present the derivation and applications of two variations of the 2(-Delta Delta C(T)) method that may be useful in the analysis of real-time, quantitative PCR data. Copyright 2001 Elsevier Science (USA).
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            Mechanisms of salinity tolerance.

            The physiological and molecular mechanisms of tolerance to osmotic and ionic components of salinity stress are reviewed at the cellular, organ, and whole-plant level. Plant growth responds to salinity in two phases: a rapid, osmotic phase that inhibits growth of young leaves, and a slower, ionic phase that accelerates senescence of mature leaves. Plant adaptations to salinity are of three distinct types: osmotic stress tolerance, Na(+) or Cl() exclusion, and the tolerance of tissue to accumulated Na(+) or Cl(). Our understanding of the role of the HKT gene family in Na(+) exclusion from leaves is increasing, as is the understanding of the molecular bases for many other transport processes at the cellular level. However, we have a limited molecular understanding of the overall control of Na(+) accumulation and of osmotic stress tolerance at the whole-plant level. Molecular genetics and functional genomics provide a new opportunity to synthesize molecular and physiological knowledge to improve the salinity tolerance of plants relevant to food production and environmental sustainability.
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              Roles of glycine betaine and proline in improving plant abiotic stress resistance

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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Microbiol
                Front Microbiol
                Front. Microbiol.
                Frontiers in Microbiology
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1664-302X
                12 February 2021
                2020
                : 11
                : 568325
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Plant-Microbe Interaction and Rhizosphere Biology Lab, ICAR-National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Microorganisms , Kushmaur, India
                [2] 2Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh , Lucknow, India
                [3] 3Soil Biology Division, ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil Science , Bhopal, India
                Author notes

                Edited by: Dilfuza Egamberdieva, Leibniz Center for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF), Germany

                Reviewed by: Osama Abdalla Abdelshafy Mohamad, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China; Vijay Singh Meena, Borlaug Institute for South Asia (BISA), India

                These authors have contributed equally to this work

                This article was submitted to Terrestrial Microbiology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Microbiology

                Article
                10.3389/fmicb.2020.568325
                7907600
                33643224
                c469eec5-0aea-460f-940b-c1bc0bc7f039
                Copyright © 2021 Singh, Singh, Trivdi, Malviya, Sahu, Roy, Sharma, Singh, Manna and Saxena.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 02 June 2020
                : 24 December 2020
                Page count
                Figures: 7, Tables: 9, Equations: 1, References: 110, Pages: 24, Words: 0
                Categories
                Microbiology
                Original Research

                Microbiology & Virology
                seed biopriming,rhizosphere microorganisms,maize (zea mays l),saline–sodic soil,antioxidant enzymes,salt tolerance,high-affinity k+ transporter,sodium/hydrogen exchanger

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