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      Chemistry of floral rewards: intra- and interspecific variability of nectar and pollen secondary metabolites across taxa

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          Antimicrobial activity of flavonoids

          Flavonoids are ubiquitous in photosynthesising cells and are commonly found in fruit, vegetables, nuts, seeds, stems, flowers, tea, wine, propolis and honey. For centuries, preparations containing these compounds as the principal physiologically active constituents have been used to treat human diseases. Increasingly, this class of natural products is becoming the subject of anti-infective research, and many groups have isolated and identified the structures of flavonoids possessing antifungal, antiviral and antibacterial activity. Moreover, several groups have demonstrated synergy between active flavonoids as well as between flavonoids and existing chemotherapeutics. Reports of activity in the field of antibacterial flavonoid research are widely conflicting, probably owing to inter- and intra-assay variation in susceptibility testing. However, several high-quality investigations have examined the relationship between flavonoid structure and antibacterial activity and these are in close agreement. In addition, numerous research groups have sought to elucidate the antibacterial mechanisms of action of selected flavonoids. The activity of quercetin, for example, has been at least partially attributed to inhibition of DNA gyrase. It has also been proposed that sophoraflavone G and (−)-epigallocatechin gallate inhibit cytoplasmic membrane function, and that licochalcones A and C inhibit energy metabolism. Other flavonoids whose mechanisms of action have been investigated include robinetin, myricetin, apigenin, rutin, galangin, 2,4,2′-trihydroxy-5′-methylchalcone and lonchocarpol A. These compounds represent novel leads, and future studies may allow the development of a pharmacologically acceptable antimicrobial agent or class of agents.
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            Complex signal function: developing a framework of testable hypotheses

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              Significance of flavonoids in plant resistance and enhancement of their biosynthesis.

              D Treutter (2005)
              The roles of flavonoids in plant defence against pathogens, herbivores, and environmental stress are reviewed and their significant contribution to plant resistance is discussed. The induction of flavonoids is of particular interest for gathering evidence of their roles. Tools are mentioned which may enhance flavonoid biosynthesis and accumulation. These include metabolic engineering and UV light. The induction of defence-related flavonoids is modified by other determining factors and competition between growth and secondary metabolism may exist. In an evolutionary context, stress-related oxidative pressure may have been a major trigger for the distribution and abundance of flavonoids. UV protection is one of their most significant, or even the most significant, functional role for flavonoids. The multi-functionality of these compounds, however, often complicates the interpretation of experimental results but, overall, it supports the importance of flavonoids.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Ecological Monographs
                Ecol Monogr
                Wiley
                00129615
                February 2019
                February 2019
                October 24 2018
                : 89
                : 1
                : e01335
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Biology; University of Massachusetts at Amherst; Amherst Massachusetts 01003 USA
                [2 ]Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; Richmond Surrey TW9 3AB United Kingdom
                [3 ]Department of Plant Protection Biology; Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences; SE-23053 Alnarp Sweden
                [4 ]Department of Bioscience; University of Salzburg; Hellbrunnerstrasse 34 5020 Salzburg Austria
                [5 ]Department of Applied Ecology; North Carolina State University; Raleigh North Carolina 27695 USA
                [6 ]University of Greenwich; Medway ME4 4 TB United Kingdom
                Article
                10.1002/ecm.1335
                c52a4182-4f09-4acf-951c-faabaf9a42b2
                © 2018

                http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tdm_license_1.1

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