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      COVID-19 and Women : Key Components of SDG-5 and the Estimated Prevalence of Modern Slavery

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          Abstract

          Abstract. Modern slavery is a significant global human rights crisis that disproportionately affects women and girls, and research indicates that the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated existing vulnerabilities to exploitation. Early evidence suggests that the pandemic has disproportionately affected women and girls, including an increase in lack of access to family planning and adequate sexual and reproductive care and an increase in maternal mortality rates. Additionally, the pandemic has instigated a reduction in economic opportunities and access to education for women and girls and increased violence against women. For this study, regression analysis was used to examine country-level data from 197 UN member countries. Predictor variables included indicators reflecting key areas addressed by UN Sustainable Development Goal 5 (SDG-5): gender inequality, educational and economic opportunities for females, women's leadership, gendered violence, and women's health. SDG-5 calls for gender equality and empowerment of women and girls. The criterion variable was the estimated prevalence of modern slavery across UN countries. Regression analysis revealed significant results across all models. Literacy rates and expected years of schooling for females, femicide, lifetime prevalence of violence, and several indicators of women's health were found to be strongly and significantly related to increased estimated prevalence of modern slavery. Furthermore, we propose that the pandemic has increased vulnerability to exploitation for women and girls by regressing progress across all areas addressed by SDG-5.

          Impact and Implications.

          Results indicate that indicators of gender equality and women's empowerment as addressed by Sustainable Development Goal 5 are strongly and significantly related to the estimated prevalence of modern slavery across UN member countries. The COVID-19 pandemic has disproportionately exacerbated inequalities for women and girls. Women play a crucial role in leadership and recovery from the pandemic.

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          The COVID-19 pandemic has increased the care burden of women and families

          Kate Power (2020)
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            Health Risks and Outcomes that Disproportionately Affect Women during the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Review

            Background The Covid-19 pandemic is straining healthcare systems in the US and globally, which has wide-reaching implications for health. Women experience unique health risks and outcomes influenced by their gender, and this narrative review aims to outline how these differences are exacerbated in the Covid-19 pandemic. Observations It has been well described that men suffer from greater morbidity and mortality once infected with SARS-CoV-2. This review analyzed the health, economic, and social systems that result in gender-based differences in the areas healthcare workforce, reproductive health, drug development, gender-based violence, and mental health during the Covid-19 pandemic. The increased risk of certain negative health outcomes and reduced healthcare access experienced by many women are typically exacerbated during pandemics. We assess data from previous disease outbreaks coupled with literature from the Covid-19 pandemic to examine the impact of gender on women’s SARS-CoV-2 exposure and disease risks and overall health status during the Covid-19 pandemic. Conclusions Gender differences in health risks and implications are likely to be expanded during the Covid-19 pandemic. Efforts to foster equity in health, social, and economic systems during and in the aftermath of Covid-19 may mitigate the inequitable risks posed by pandemics and other times of healthcare stress.
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              Challenges for the female academic during the COVID-19 pandemic

              Science and innovation benefit from diversity. However, as the global community fights COVID-19, the productivity and scientific output of female academics are disproportionately affected, leading to loss of women's scientific expertise from the public realm. Women comprise 70% of the global health workforce and more than 50% of medical graduates in many countries. Despite this, women and gender minorities remain underrepresented in medical leadership. Only 22% of full professors in American medical schools 1 and 23% in Europe 2 are women. Women of colour are particularly underrepresented; only 0·5% of full professors in American medical schools are Black women. 1 Academic publishing is essential to career advancement. Women's first authorship in major medical journals has increased from 27% to 37% (1994–2014). 3 Yet, COVID-19 is threatening progress by amplifying existing gender disparities. Early data show that COVID-19 significantly affects women's publishing. Andersen and colleagues 4 compared authorship of 1179 medical COVID-19 papers with 37 531 papers from the same journals in 2019. At 30%, 28%, and 22%, women's shares of overall, first, and last authorship in COVID-19 papers decreased by 16%, 23%, and 16%, respectively. In a Github analysis of arXiv and bioRxiv submissions, Frederickson 5 showed that, although preprint submissions are increasing overall, the number of male authors is growing faster than the number of female authors. Female authorship in other research fields shows similar trends. 6 Our analysis of COVID-19 papers in The Lancet (n=159), excluding Editorials, World Reports, and Perspectives, indicates that overall, first, last, and corresponding female authorship was 30·8%, 24·4%, 25·8%, and 22·9% respectively. Furthermore, most authorships (61·3%) were affiliated with institutions in high-income countries and with the European and central Asia region (40·2%; further methods and details are described in the appendix). Overall female authorship of COVID-19 research articles (32·9%) is similar to previously reported authorship (29%, 2016–17), but overall female authorship of COVID-19 comments (30·6%) is lower than previously reported (39%, 2018). 7 Increasing the prominence of women and minorities in academia is crucial to the fight against COVID-19. Furthermore, ensuring that women's academic output is not disproportionately affected by COVID-19 might safeguard women's career trajectories. Challenges women in academia face are well documented in non-pandemic times. These challenges include male-dominated institutional cultures, lack of female mentors, competing family responsibilities due to gendered domestic labour, and implicit and subconscious biases in recruitment, research allocation, outcome of peer review, and number of citations. 8 COVID-19 has led to unprecedented day care, school, and workplace closures exacerbating challenges. Recent data from the USA, the UK, and Germany suggest women spend more time on pandemic-era childcare and home schooling than men do. 9 This is particularly difficult for single-parent households, the majority of which are female-headed. The academic community, funders, and health professionals should support women in academia during this pandemic (and beyond). First, recognise that women are probably taking on more responsibilities than men are. Help families access safe childcare, and provide options for academics caring for family members, by considering the lockdown period as care leave so decreases in productivity do not hinder later career advancement. Second, recognise how gender bias influences selection and evaluation of scientific experts and leaders during times of crisis. Women make up just 24% of COVID-19 experts quoted in the media and 24·3% of national task forces analysed (n=24). 10 However, countries with female leaders have some of the best COVID-19 outcomes. 11 Amplify the voices of women with established records in infectious disease, pandemic response, global health, and health security. Third, collect and report institutional data on gender representation, including academic output and senior positions. Set clear, specific goals and guidelines and be proactive about identifying and addressing evidence on the impact of COVID-19. Give credit for ideas and ensure that first and last authorship is shared equitably and that contributions are acknowledged fairly among colleagues. Fourth, identify and address structural implicit and unconscious biases in research institutions (eg, hiring) and publication processes (eg, peer review outcome, number of citations). Consider offering training in bias or double-blinded peer review for scientific journals. Establish accountability mechanisms to ensure professionalism and report concerns. Finally, and most importantly, recognise that women from ethnic minority groups face additional challenges in academia, and take structural action to provide support and address these challenges. Scientific expertise and knowledge from all genders are essential to build diverse, inclusive research organisations and improve rigour of medical research to tackle COVID-19. We can do better.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                ipp
                International Perspectives in Psychology
                Research, Practice, Consultation
                Hogrefe Publishing
                2157-3883
                2157-3891
                August 4, 2021
                July 2021
                : 10
                : 3 , Special Issue: Women During COVID-19
                : 138-146
                Affiliations
                [ 1 ]School of Psychology, Fielding Graduate University, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
                Author notes
                Erinn C. Cameron, School of Psychology, Fielding Graduate University, 2020 De La Vina St, Santa Barbara, CA 93105, USA, ecameron@ 123456email.fielding.edu
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2663-1332
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9010-3852
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5655-0752
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0407-5117
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6494-4559
                Article
                ipp_10_3_138
                10.1027/2157-3891/a000019
                c593fed0-07b3-4ccd-ba84-421a72170151
                Copyright @ 2021
                History
                : January 16, 2021
                : May 10, 2021
                : May 14, 2021
                Categories
                Article

                Sociology,Assessment, Evaluation & Research methods,Political science,Psychology,General behavioral science,Public health
                COVID-19,violence against women,SDG-5,gender inequality,modern slavery

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