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      Rural practice preferences among medical students in Ghana: a discrete choice experiment Translated title: Préférences concernant la pratique rurale exprimées par les étudiants en médecine ghanéens: expérience à choix discrets Translated title: Preferencias por destinos rurales entre los estudiantes de medicina en Ghana: experimento de elección discreta

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          Abstract

          OBJECTIVE: To determine how specific job attributes influenced fourth year medical students' stated preference for hypothetical rural job postings in Ghana. METHODS: Based on discussions with medical student focus groups and physicians in practice and in the Ministry of Health, we created a discrete choice experiment (DCE) that assessed how students' stated preference for certain rural postings was influenced by various job attributes: a higher salary, free superior housing, an educational allowance for children, improved equipment, supportive management, shorter contracts before study leave and a car. We conducted the DCE among all fourth year medical students in Ghana using a brief structured questionnaire and used mixed logit models to estimate the utility of each job attribute. FINDINGS: Complete data for DCE analysis were available for 302 of 310 (97%) students. All attribute parameter estimates differed significantly from zero and had the expected signs. In the main effects mixed logit model, improved equipment and supportive management were most strongly associated with job preference (β = 1.42; 95% confidence interval, CI: 1.17 to 1.66, and β = 1.17; 95% CI: 0.96 to 1.39, respectively), although shorter contracts and salary bonuses were also associated. Discontinuing the provision of basic housing had a large negative influence (β = -1.59; 95% CI: -1.88 to -1.31). In models including gender interaction terms, women's preferences were more influenced by supportive management and men's preferences by superior housing. CONCLUSION: Better working conditions were strongly associated with the stated choice of hypothetical rural postings among fourth year Ghanaian medical students. Studies are needed to find out whether job attributes determine the actual uptake of rural jobs by graduating physicians.

          Translated abstract

          OBJECTIF: Déterminer comment les préférences d'étudiants en quatrième année de médecine pour des postes de travail hypothétiques en milieu rural au Ghana ont été influencées par les caractéristiques spécifiques de ces postes. MÉTHODES: A partir de discussions avec des groupes thématiques d'étudiants en médecine, des médecins en exercice et des employés du Ministère de la santé, nous avons mis sur pied une expérience à choix discrets (DCE), qui a permis d'évaluer comment les préférences exprimées par les étudiants pour certains postes en milieu rural étaient influencées par les diverses caractéristiques de ces postes : salaire plus élevé, logement confortable gratuit et indemnité pour l'éducation des enfants, équipement perfectionné, encadrement coopératif, contrats plus courts avant la fin des études et véhicule de fonction. Nous avons appliqué cette DCE à l'ensemble des étudiants ghanéens en quatrième année de médecine à l'aide d'un bref questionnaire structuré, puis employé des modèles logit à effets mixtes pour estimer l'utilité de chaque caractéristique des postes. RÉSULTATS: Nous disposions de données complètes se prêtant à une analyse de la DCE pour 302 étudiants sur 310 (97%). Toutes les estimations des paramètres liés aux caractéristiques différaient significativement de zéro et présentaient les signes attendus. La modélisation logit des effets mixtes principaux faisait apparaître une forte association entre la présence d'un équipement perfectionné ou d'un encadrement coopératif et la préférence pour le poste (β = 1,42 ; intervalle de confiance à 95%, IC : 1,17à 1,66, et β = 1,17 ; IC à 95% : 0,96 à 1,39, respectivement), même si la possibilité de contrats plus courts et l'existence de primes salariales étaient aussi associées à cette préférence. Ne pas mettre à disposition un logement de base avait une forte influence négative (β = -1,59 ; IC à 95 % : -1,88 à -1,31). Les modèles intégrant les termes d'interaction entre les sexes indiquaient que les préférences des femmes étaient plus influencées par la présence d'un encadrement coopératif et celles des hommes par la mise à disposition d'un logement confortable. CONCLUSION: Il existait une forte association entre de meilleures conditions de travail et le choix déclaré par les étudiants ghanéens en quatrième année de médecine d'un poste rural hypothétique. Des études sont nécessaires pour déterminer si les caractéristiques des postes conditionnent l'acceptation réelle des postes en milieu rural par des médecins ayant obtenu leur diplôme.

          Translated abstract

          OBJETIVO: Determinar qué condiciones específicas de empleo influyen en la preferencia declarada de alumnos de cuarto año de medicina por puestos de trabajo hipotéticos en zonas rurales en Ghana. MÉTODOS: Basándonos en conversaciones mantenidas con grupos de discusión de estudiantes de medicina y médicos en ejercicio en el Ministerio de Salud, creamos un modelo de elección discreta (MED) para evaluar el efecto de diversas condiciones de empleo en la preferencia declarada de los estudiantes por determinados destinos rurales; a saber: sueldos más altos, alojamiento gratuito de mayor calidad, subsidios de educación para los niños, mejores equipos, gestión de apoyo, contratos más cortos antes de la licencia de estudios, y entrega de un coche. Ensayamos sobre el terreno el MED y un breve cuestionario estructurado entre todos los estudiantes de cuarto año de medicina en Ghana, y usamos modelos logit mixtos para estimar la utilidad de cada característica del trabajo. RESULTADOS: Se consiguió usar en el análisis MED los datos completos de 302 de un total de 310 estudiantes (97%). Todas las estimaciones de los parámetros de las condiciones estudiadas fueron significativamente distintas de cero y tuvieron el signo previsto. En el modelo logit mixto de efectos principales, un mejor equipo y la gestión de apoyo fueron los factores más estrechamente relacionados con la preferencia por el trabajo (β = 1,42, intervalo de confianza del 95%: 1,17-1,66, y β = 1,17, IC95%: 0,96-1,39, respectivamente), si bien se observó también una asociación con los contratos más cortos y las bonificaciones salariales. La interrupción de la prestación de alojamiento básico tuvo una enorme influencia negativa (β = 1,59, IC95%: 1,88-1,31). En los modelos que incluían la interacción del factor género, las preferencias de las mujeres respondían en mayor medida a la gestión de apoyo y las de los hombres, a una vivienda mejor. CONCLUSIÓN: Se observó una sólida relación entre unas condiciones de empleo mejores y la elección declarada de puestos de trabajo rurales hipotéticos entre estudiantes de cuarto año de medicina de Ghana. Es necesario realizar nuevos estudios para averiguar si las condiciones de empleo determinan la ocupación real de puestos de trabajo rurales por los médicos que acaban la carrera.

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          Staffing remote rural areas in middle- and low-income countries: A literature review of attraction and retention

          Background Many countries in middle- and low-income countries today suffer from severe staff shortages and/or maldistribution of health personnel which has been aggravated more recently by the disintegration of health systems in low-income countries and by the global policy environment. One of the most damaging effects of severely weakened and under-resourced health systems is the difficulty they face in producing, recruiting, and retaining health professionals, particularly in remote areas. Low wages, poor working conditions, lack of supervision, lack of equipment and infrastructure as well as HIV and AIDS, all contribute to the flight of health care personnel from remote areas. In this global context of accelerating inequities health service policy makers and managers are searching for ways to improve the attraction and retention of staff in remote areas. But the development of appropriate strategies first requires an understanding of the factors which influence decisions to accept and/or stay in a remote post, particularly in the context of mid and low income countries (MLICS), and which strategies to improve attraction and retention are therefore likely to be successful. It is the aim of this review article to explore the links between attraction and retention factors and strategies, with a particular focus on the organisational diversity and location of decision-making. Methods This is a narrative literature review which took an iterative approach to finding relevant literature. It focused on English-language material published between 1997 and 2007. The authors conducted Pubmed searches using a range of different search terms relating to attraction and retention of staff in remote areas. Furthermore, a number of relevant journals as well as unpublished literature were systematically searched. While the initial search included articles from high- middle- and low-income countries, the review focuses on middle- and low-income countries. About 600 papers were initially assessed and 55 eventually included in the review. Results The authors argue that, although factors are multi-facetted and complex, strategies are usually not comprehensive and often limited to addressing a single or limited number of factors. They suggest that because of the complex interaction of factors impacting on attraction and retention, there is a strong argument to be made for bundles of interventions which include attention to living environments, working conditions and environments and development opportunities. They further explore the organisational location of decision-making related to retention issues and suggest that because promising strategies often lie beyond the scope of human resource directorates or ministries of health, planning and decision-making to improve retention requires multi-sectoral collaboration within and beyond government. The paper provides a simple framework for bringing the key decision-makers together to identify factors and develop multi-facetted comprehensive strategies. Conclusion There are no set answers to the problem of attraction and retention. It is only through learning about what works in terms of fit between problem analysis and strategy and effective navigation through the politics of implementation that any headway will be made against the almost universal challenge of staffing health service in remote rural areas.
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            The metrics of the physician brain drain.

            There has been substantial immigration of physicians to developed countries, much of it coming from lower-income countries. Although the recipient nations and the immigrating physicians benefit from this migration, less developed countries lose important health capabilities as a result of the loss of physicians. Data on the countries of origin, based on countries of medical education, of international medical graduates practicing in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia were obtained from sources in the respective countries and analyzed separately and in aggregate. With the use of World Health Organization data, I computed an emigration factor for the countries of origin of the immigrant physicians to provide a relative measure of the number of physicians lost by emigration. International medical graduates constitute between 23 and 28 percent of physicians in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia, and lower-income countries supply between 40 and 75 percent of these international medical graduates. India, the Philippines, and Pakistan are the leading sources of international medical graduates. The United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia draw a substantial number of physicians from South Africa, and the United States draws very heavily from the Philippines. Nine of the 20 countries with the highest emigration factors are in sub-Saharan Africa or the Caribbean. Reliance on international medical graduates in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia is reducing the supply of physicians in many lower-income countries. Copyright 2005 Massachusetts Medical Society.
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              Human resources for health: overcoming the crisis.

              In this analysis of the global workforce, the Joint Learning Initiative-a consortium of more than 100 health leaders-proposes that mobilisation and strengthening of human resources for health, neglected yet critical, is central to combating health crises in some of the world's poorest countries and for building sustainable health systems in all countries. Nearly all countries are challenged by worker shortage, skill mix imbalance, maldistribution, negative work environment, and weak knowledge base. Especially in the poorest countries, the workforce is under assault by HIV/AIDS, out-migration, and inadequate investment. Effective country strategies should be backed by international reinforcement. Ultimately, the crisis in human resources is a shared problem requiring shared responsibility for cooperative action. Alliances for action are recommended to strengthen the performance of all existing actors while expanding space and energy for fresh actors.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
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                Journal
                bwho
                Bulletin of the World Health Organization
                Bull World Health Organ
                World Health Organization (Genebra )
                0042-9686
                May 2010
                : 88
                : 5
                : 333-341
                Affiliations
                [1 ] University of Michigan USA
                [2 ] University of Michigan USA
                [3 ] University of Ghana Ghana
                [4 ] Kwame Nakrumah University of Science and Technology Ghana
                [5 ] Ministry of Health Jamaica
                [6 ] Ministry of Health Jamaica
                [7 ] University of Michigan USA
                [8 ] University of Ghana School of Public Health Ghana
                Article
                S0042-96862010000500010
                10.2471/BLT.09.072892
                2865662
                20458371
                c5b1d810-3a6c-4493-85a4-407f55b7c2a8

                http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

                History
                Product

                SciELO Public Health

                Self URI (journal page): http://www.scielosp.org/scielo.php?script=sci_serial&pid=0042-9686&lng=en
                Categories
                Health Policy & Services

                Public health
                Public health

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