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      Seroprevalence of Yellow fever, Chikungunya, and Zika virus at a community level in the Gambella Region, South West Ethiopia

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          Abstract

          Yellow fever (YF), Chikungunya (CHIK), and Zika(ZIK) are among re-emerging arboviral diseases of major public health concern. Despite the proximity of the Gambella Region to South Sudan where arboviral cases have been recorded repeatedly the current epidemiological situation is unclear in this part of southwest Ethiopia. Therefore, we conducted a community-based seroprevalence survey of YF virus (YFV), CHIK virus (CHIKV), and ZIK virus (ZIKV) infections in two selected districts. A cross-sectional study was conducted in two locations of the Gambella region (Lare and Itang) to investigate the seroprevalence of these viruses’ infections. Blood samples were collected from the study participants and screened for IgG antibodies specific to YFV and CHIKV infections using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). For the detection of ZIKV specific IgG antibodies, Blockade-of-binding ELISA was used. Data were analyzed using the STATA version 13.1 Softwares. A total of 150 individuals (96 males and 54 females, age ranging from 18 to 65 years, mean age ± SD = 35.92 ± 10.99) participated and provided blood samples. Among the 150 samples 135, 90, and 150 were screened for YFV, CHIKV, and ZIKV, respectively. Hence, 2.9% (95% CI: 1.1–7.7%), 15.6% (95% CI: 9.3–24.8%), and 27.3% (95% CI: 20.7–35.3%) of samples tested positive for IgG antibodies to YFV, CHIKV, and ZIKV infections, respectively. Among the individual seropositive for ZIKV, YFV and CHIKV, only six, one and three had a history of residence outside the Gambella region respectively. Agro-pastoral occupation was significantly associated with a higher prevalence of IgG against CHIKV (AOR = 14.17; 95%CI: 2.30, 87.30) and residency in the Lare district (AOR = 11; 95%CI: 3.31, 39.81) was found to be significantly associated with a higher prevalence of IgG against ZIKV. Our findings revealed the occurrence of YFV, CHIKV and ZIKV infections in the study locations.

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          Impact of climate change and other factors on emerging arbovirus diseases.

          While some skeptics remain unconvinced that global climate change is a reality, there is no doubt that during the past 50 years or so, patterns of emerging arbovirus diseases have changed significantly. Can this be attributed to climate change? Climate is a major factor in determining: (1) the geographic and temporal distribution of arthropods; (2) characteristics of arthropod life cycles; (3) dispersal patterns of associated arboviruses; (4) the evolution of arboviruses; and (5) the efficiency with which they are transmitted from arthropods to vertebrate hosts. Thus, under the influence of increasing temperatures and rainfall through warming of the oceans, and alteration of the natural cycles that stabilise climate, one is inevitably drawn to the conclusion that arboviruses will continue to emerge in new regions. For example, we cannot ignore the unexpected but successful establishment of chikungunya fever in northern Italy, the sudden appearance of West Nile virus in North America, the increasing frequency of Rift Valley fever epidemics in the Arabian Peninsula, and very recently, the emergence of Bluetongue virus in northern Europe. In this brief review we ask the question, are these diseases emerging because of climate change or do other factors play an equal or even more important role in their emergence?
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            Zika virus. I. Isolations and serological specificity.

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              Zika Virus Spreads to New Areas - Region of the Americas, May 2015-January 2016.

              Zika virus is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that was first identified in Uganda in 1947 (1). Before 2007, only sporadic human disease cases were reported from countries in Africa and Asia. In 2007, the first documented outbreak of Zika virus disease was reported in Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia; 73% of the population aged ≥3 years is estimated to have been infected (2). Subsequent outbreaks occurred in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific (3). In May 2015, the World Health Organization reported the first local transmission of Zika virus in the Region of the Americas (Americas), with autochthonous cases identified in Brazil (4). In December, the Ministry of Health estimated that 440,000-1,300,000 suspected cases of Zika virus disease had occurred in Brazil in 2015 (5). By January 20, 2016, locally-transmitted cases had been reported to the Pan American Health Organization from Puerto Rico and 19 other countries or territories in the Americas* (Figure) (6). Further spread to other countries in the region is being monitored closely.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: MethodologyRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: SoftwareRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: SoftwareRole: ValidationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SoftwareRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS One
                plos
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                8 July 2021
                2021
                : 16
                : 7
                : e0253953
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Immunology and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, Addis Ababa University, Bishoftu, Ethiopia
                [2 ] College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Gambella University, Gambella, Ethiopia
                [3 ] Division of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
                [4 ] Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Parasitology, School of Medicine, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
                [5 ] Aklilu Lemma Institute of Pathobiology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
                [6 ] School of Medicine, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Dire Dawa University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
                [7 ] Panorama Research Institute, Sunnyvale, California, United States of America
                CEA, FRANCE
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1123-4545
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2596-1911
                Article
                PONE-D-21-05581
                10.1371/journal.pone.0253953
                8266044
                34237098
                c6e356c4-9f17-4ae8-a0fb-fe6b673f28ab

                This is an open access article, free of all copyright, and may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication.

                History
                : 19 February 2021
                : 16 June 2021
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 4, Pages: 15
                Funding
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100007941, Addis Ababa University;
                Award ID: Ref No. RD/PY662/2016
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: LaRuke Development and the Panorama Research Institute, California USA
                The study was financially supported by the Office of Vice President for Research and Technology Transfer, Addis Ababa University (Ref No. RD/PY662/2016) where Dr Mengistu Legesse received the award. The ELISA kits were donated by LaRuke Development and the Panorama Research Institute, California USA. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Biology and life sciences
                Organisms
                Viruses
                RNA viruses
                Togaviruses
                Alphaviruses
                Chikungunya Virus
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Microbiology
                Medical Microbiology
                Microbial Pathogens
                Viral Pathogens
                Togaviruses
                Alphaviruses
                Chikungunya Virus
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                South Sudan
                Custom metadata
                All relevant data are within the manuscript and its S1 Data, S1 Protocol and S1 and S2 Questionnaires.

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