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      Japanese and Bohemian Knotweeds as Sustainable Sources of Carotenoids

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          Abstract

          Japanese knotweed ( Fallopia japonica Houtt.) and Bohemian knotweed ( Fallopia x bohemica) are invasive alien plant species, causing great global ecological and economic damage. Mechanical excavation of plant material represents an effective containment method, but it is not economically and environmentally sustainable as it produces an excessive amount of waste. Thus, practical uses of these plants are actively being sought. In this study, we explored the carotenoid profiles and carotenoid content of mature (green) and senescing leaves of both knotweeds. Both plants showed similar pigment profiles. By means of high performance thin-layer chromatography with densitometry and high performance liquid chromatography coupled to photodiode array and mass spectrometric detector, 11 carotenoids (and their derivatives) and 4 chlorophylls were identified in green leaves, whereas 16 distinct carotenoids (free carotenoids and xanthophyll esters) were found in senescing leaves. Total carotenoid content in green leaves of Japanese knotweed and Bohemian knotweed (378 and 260 mg of lutein equivalent (LE)/100 g dry weight (DW), respectively) was comparable to that of spinach (384 mg LE/100 g DW), a well-known rich source of carotenoids. A much lower total carotenoid content was found for senescing leaves of Japanese and Bohemian knotweed (67 and 70 mg LE/100 g DW, respectively). Thus, green leaves of both studied knotweeds represent a rich and sustainable natural source of bioactive carotenoids. Exploitation of these invaders for the production of high value-added products should consequently promote their mechanical control.

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          Carotenoid biosynthesis in flowering plants.

          The general scheme of carotenoid biosynthesis has been known for more than three decades. However, molecular description of the pathway in plants began only in the 1990s after the genes for the carotenogenic enzymes were cloned. Recent data on the biochemistry of carotenogenesis and its regulation in vivo present the possibility of genetically manipulating this pathway in crop plants.
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            Carotenoid extraction methods: A review of recent developments.

            The versatile use of carotenoids in feed, food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries has emphasized the optimization of extraction methods to obtain the highest recovery. The choice of method for carotenoid extraction from food matrices is crucial, owing to the presence of diverse carotenoids with varied levels of polarity, and the presence of various physical and chemical barriers in the food matrices. This review highlights the theoretical aspects and recent developments of various conventional and nonconventional methods used for the extraction of carotenoids, including ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE). Recent applications of non-toxic and environmentally safe solvents (green solvents) and ionic liquids (IL) for carotenoid extraction are also described. Additionally, future research challenges in the context of carotenoids extractions are also identified.
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              Carotenoids and Their Isomers: Color Pigments in Fruits and Vegetables

              Fruits and vegetables are colorful pigment-containing food sources. Owing to their nutritional benefits and phytochemicals, they are considered as ‘functional food ingredients’. Carotenoids are some of the most vital colored phytochemicals, occurring as all-trans and cis-isomers, and accounting for the brilliant colors of a variety of fruits and vegetables. Carotenoids extensively studied in this regard include β-carotene, lycopene, lutein and zeaxanthin. Coloration of fruits and vegetables depends on their growth maturity, concentration of carotenoid isomers, and food processing methods. This article focuses more on several carotenoids and their isomers present in different fruits and vegetables along with their concentrations. Carotenoids and their geometric isomers also play an important role in protecting cells from oxidation and cellular damages.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Plants (Basel)
                Plants (Basel)
                plants
                Plants
                MDPI
                2223-7747
                28 September 2019
                October 2019
                : 8
                : 10
                : 384
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Food Chemistry, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia
                [2 ]Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 113, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: alen.albreht@ 123456ki.si ; Tel.: +386-14760269
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6825-3149
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0594-8899
                Article
                plants-08-00384
                10.3390/plants8100384
                6843863
                31569417
                c6fd0634-393a-4564-8ecc-108407fd4e3b
                © 2019 by the authors.

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                : 10 September 2019
                : 26 September 2019
                Categories
                Article

                fallopia japonica houtt,fallopia x bohemica,mechanical control,renewable carotenoid source,carotenoid determination,chromatography,mass spectrometry,qualitative,quantitative analysis

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