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      Disparities in Pulmonary Function in Healthy Children across the Indian Urban–Rural Continuum

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          Abstract

          Marked socioeconomic health-care disparities are recognized in India, but lung health inequalities between urban and rural children have not been studied.

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          Multi-ethnic reference values for spirometry for the 3-95-yr age range: the global lung function 2012 equations.

          Philip H. Quanjer, Sanja Stanojevic, Tim J. Cole … (2012)
          The aim of the Task Force was to derive continuous prediction equations and their lower limits of normal for spirometric indices, which are applicable globally. Over 160,000 data points from 72 centres in 33 countries were shared with the European Respiratory Society Global Lung Function Initiative. Eliminating data that could not be used (mostly missing ethnic group, some outliers) left 97,759 records of healthy nonsmokers (55.3% females) aged 2.5-95 yrs. Lung function data were collated and prediction equations derived using the LMS method, which allows simultaneous modelling of the mean (mu), the coefficient of variation (sigma) and skewness (lambda) of a distribution family. After discarding 23,572 records, mostly because they could not be combined with other ethnic or geographic groups, reference equations were derived for healthy individuals aged 3-95 yrs for Caucasians (n=57,395), African-Americans (n=3,545), and North (n=4,992) and South East Asians (n=8,255). Forced expiratory value in 1 s (FEV(1)) and forced vital capacity (FVC) between ethnic groups differed proportionally from that in Caucasians, such that FEV(1)/FVC remained virtually independent of ethnic group. For individuals not represented by these four groups, or of mixed ethnic origins, a composite equation taken as the average of the above equations is provided to facilitate interpretation until a more appropriate solution is developed. Spirometric prediction equations for the 3-95-age range are now available that include appropriate age-dependent lower limits of normal. They can be applied globally to different ethnic groups. Additional data from the Indian subcontinent and Arabic, Polynesian and Latin American countries, as well as Africa will further improve these equations in the future.
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            Indicators of socioeconomic status for adolescents: the WHO Health Behaviour in School-aged Children Survey.

            C. E. Currie, R A Elton, J. Todd … (1997)
            Many indicators of socioeconomic status used for adults are inappropriate for use in research on adolescents. In a school-based survey of 4079 Scottish schoolchildren using a self-completion questionnaire, over 20% of 11-15 year olds were unable to provide a substantive response on father's occupation. In contrast, indicators derived to construct a family affluence scale, which included car ownership, telephone ownership and the child having their own unshared bedroom, resulted in a 98% response rate; and 92% of children responded to a question on their weekly spending money. The intercorrelations between the conventional indicator of father's occupation and each family affluence and spending money were examined, and their associations with a range of health indicators and health behaviour measures compared. Father's occupational status and family affluence were moderately correlated and showed broadly similar patterns of association with the selected health measures although there were also some distinct differences. Child's spending money was only weakly correlated with father's occupation and showed rather different patterns of association with health measures. A case is made for the use of multiple indicators of socioeconomic status in adolescent health surveys, and it is argued that that the family affluence scale provides a useful and easily applied additional indicator to father's occupation or an alternative measure of socioeconomic background where occupational data are unavailable.
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              Widening rural-urban disparities in life expectancy, U.S., 1969-2009.

              Gopal Singh, Mohammad Siahpush (2014)
              There is limited research on rural-urban disparities in U.S. life expectancy. This study examined trends in rural-urban disparities in life expectancy at birth in the U.S. between 1969 and 2009. The 1969-2009 U.S. county-level mortality data linked to a rural-urban continuum measure were analyzed. Life expectancies were calculated by age, gender, and race for 3-year time periods between 1969 and 2004 and for 2005-2009 using standard life-table methodology. Differences in life expectancy were decomposed by age and cause of death. Life expectancy was inversely related to levels of rurality. In 2005-2009, those in large metropolitan areas had a life expectancy of 79.1 years, compared with 76.9 years in small urban towns and 76.7 years in rural areas. When stratified by gender, race, and income, life expectancy ranged from 67.7 years among poor black men in nonmetropolitan areas to 89.6 among poor Asian/Pacific Islander women in metropolitan areas. Rural-urban disparities widened over time. In 1969-1971, life expectancy was 0.4 years longer in metropolitan than in nonmetropolitan areas (70.9 vs 70.5 years). By 2005-2009, the life expectancy difference had increased to 2.0 years (78.8 vs 76.8 years). The rural poor and rural blacks currently experience survival probabilities that urban rich and urban whites enjoyed 4 decades earlier. Causes of death contributing most to the increasing rural-urban disparity and lower life expectancy in rural areas include heart disease, unintentional injuries, COPD, lung cancer, stroke, suicide, and diabetes. Between 1969 and 2009, residents in metropolitan areas experienced larger gains in life expectancy than those in nonmetropolitan areas, contributing to the widening gap. Published by American Journal of Preventive Medicine on behalf of American Journal of Preventive Medicine.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Title: American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine
                Abbreviated Title: Am J Respir Crit Care Med
                Publisher: American Thoracic Society
                ISSN (Print): 1073-449X
                ISSN (Electronic): 1535-4970
                Publication date Created: January 01 2015
                Publication date (Print): January 01 2015
                Volume: 191
                Issue: 1
                Pages: 79-86
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Respiratory, Critical Care, and Anaesthesia Section (Portex Unit) and
                [2 ]University College London Institute of Global Health, London, United Kingdom
                [3 ]M. S. Ramaiah Advanced Learning Centre, Bengaluru, India; and
                [4 ]Clinical Epidemiology, Nutrition, and Biostatistics Section, University College London Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
                [5 ]Department of Community Medicine, M. S. Ramaiah Medical College, Bengaluru, India
                Article
                DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201406-1049OC
                PMC ID: 4299630
                PubMed ID: 25412016
                SO-VID: c955a7c2-a9d3-4024-b3df-c5453bb0f14d
                Copyright © © 2015
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