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      Acquired sensorineural hearing loss in children: current research and therapeutic perspectives Translated title: Sordità infantile acquisita: stato dell'arte della ricerca e prospettive terapeutiche

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          SUMMARY

          The knowledge of mechanisms responsible for acquired sensorineural hearing loss in children, such as viral and bacterial infections, noise exposure, aminoglycoside and cisplatin ototoxicity, is increasing and progressively changing the clinical management of affected patients. Viral infections are by far the most relevant cause of acquired hearing loss, followed by aminoglycoside and platinum derivative ototoxicity; moreover, cochlear damage induced by noise overexposure, mainly in adolescents, is an emerging topic. Pharmacological approaches are still challenging to develop a truly effective cochlear protection; however, the use of steroids, antioxidants, antiviral drugs and other small molecules is encouraging for clinical practice. Most of evidence on the effectiveness of antioxidants is still limited to experimental models, while the use of corticosteroids and antiviral drugs has a wide correspondence in literature but with controversial safety. Future therapeutic perspectives include innovative strategies to transport drugs into the cochlea, such as molecules incorporated in nanoparticles that can be delivered to a specific target. Innovative approaches also include the gene therapy designed to compensate for abnormal genes or to make proteins by introducing genetic material into cells; finally, regenerative medicine (including stem cell approaches) may play a central role in the upcoming years in hearing preservation and restoration even if its role in the inner ear is still debated.

          RIASSUNTO

          La conoscenza dei meccanismi fisiopatologici delle condizioni responsabili dell'ipoacusia acquisita nei bambini, tra cui le infezioni virali e batteriche, l'esposizione al rumore, l'ototossicità da chemioterapici ed antibiotici aminoglicosidici, è in costante aumento e sta portando ad un progressivo cambiamento della gestione diagnostica e clinica del bambino ipoacusico. Le infezioni virali rappresentano la causa più frequente di sordità infantile acquisita, seguita dalla tossicità di antibiotici e chemioterapici; mentre l'esposizione al rumore, soprattutto negli adolescenti, rappresenta un fattore emergente. Le terapie farmacologiche protettive attualmente in uso includono steroidi, antiossidanti, antivirali; l'efficacia degli antiossidanti è ancora in fase di conferma clinica anche se vi sono significative evidenze sperimentali, mentre i farmaci steroidei ed antivirali sono certamente validi seppur la loro tossicità sistemica rappresenti ancora un problema non chiarito per i quali la somministrazione locale potrebbe rappresentare una possibile evoluzione. Le prospettive di ricerca future includono l'uso di nanoparticelle per veicolare molecole direttamente nel sito di danno; inoltre, la terapia genica con l'inserimento di materiale genetico all'interno delle cellule per la cura di condizioni da alterazione del patrimonio genetico con la produzione di proteine normali, potrebbe svolgere un ruolo rilevante nella cura e soprattutto nella prevenzione delle sordità acquisite; infine, la terapia rigenerativa e l'impianto delle cellule staminali, nonostante il loro ruolo nell'orecchio interno sia ancora dibattuto, per le notevole limitazioni del loro impiego, potrebbe trovare un ruolo nei processi riparativi più che nella differenziazione in cellule sensoriali.

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          Generation of inner ear sensory epithelia from pluripotent stem cells in 3D culture

          The inner ear contains sensory epithelia that detect head movements, gravity and sound. It is unclear how to derive these sensory epithelia from pluripotent stem cells, a process which will be critical for modeling inner ear disorders or developing cell-based therapies for profound hearing loss and balance disorders 1,2 . To date, attempts to derive inner ear mechanosensitive hair cells and sensory neurons have resulted in inefficient or incomplete phenotypic conversion of stem cells into inner ear-like cells 3–7 . A key insight lacking from these previous studies is the importance of the non-neural and pre-placodal ectoderm, two critical precursors during inner ear development 8–11 . Here we report the step-wise differentiation of inner ear sensory epithelia from mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs) in three-dimensional culture 12,13 . We show that by recapitulating in vivo development with precise temporal control of BMP, TGFβ and FGF signaling, ESC aggregates transform sequentially into non-neural, pre-placodal and otic placode-like epithelia. Remarkably, in a self-organized process that mimics normal development, vesicles containing prosensory cells emerge from the presumptive otic placodes and give rise to hair cells bearing stereocilia bundles and a kinocilium. Moreover, these stem cell-derived hair cells exhibit functional properties of native mechanosensitive hair cells and form specialized synapses with sensory neurons that have also arisen from ESCs in the culture. Finally, we demonstrate how these vesicles are structurally and biochemically comparable to developing vestibular end organs. Our data thus establish a novel in vitro model of inner ear differentiation that can be used to gain deeper insight into inner ear development and disorder.
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            The basic science of gene therapy.

            The development over the past decade of methods for delivering genes to mammalian cells has stimulated great interest in the possibility of treating human disease by gene-based therapies. However, despite substantial progress, a number of key technical issues need to be resolved before gene therapy can be safely and effectively applied in the clinic. Future technological developments, particularly in the areas of gene delivery and cell transplantation, will be critical for the successful practice of gene therapy.
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              Platinum-induced ototoxicity in children: a consensus review on mechanisms, predisposition, and protection, including a new International Society of Pediatric Oncology Boston ototoxicity scale.

              The platinum chemotherapy agents cisplatin and carboplatin are widely used in the treatment of adult and pediatric cancers. Cisplatin causes hearing loss in at least 60% of pediatric patients. Reducing cisplatin and high-dose carboplatin ototoxicity without reducing efficacy is important. This review summarizes recommendations made at the 42nd Congress of the International Society of Pediatric Oncology (SIOP) in Boston, October 21-24, 2010, reflecting input from international basic scientists, pediatric oncologists, otolaryngologists, oncology nurses, audiologists, and neurosurgeons to develop and advance research and clinical trials for otoprotection. Platinum initially impairs hearing in the high frequencies and progresses to lower frequencies with increasing cumulative dose. Genes involved in drug transport, metabolism, and DNA repair regulate platinum toxicities. Otoprotection can be achieved by acting on several these pathways and generally involves antioxidant thiol agents. Otoprotection is a strategy being explored to decrease hearing loss while maintaining dose intensity or allowing dose escalation, but it has the potential to interfere with tumoricidal effects. Route of administration and optimal timing relative to platinum therapy are critical issues. In addition, international standards for grading and comparing ototoxicity are essential to the success of prospective pediatric trials aimed at reducing platinum-induced hearing loss. Collaborative prospective basic and clinical trial research is needed to reduce the incidence of irreversible platinum-induced hearing loss, and optimize cancer control. Wide use of the new internationally agreed-on SIOP Boston ototoxicity scale in current and future otoprotection trials should help facilitate this goal.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital
                Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital
                Pacini
                Acta Otorhinolaryngologica Italica
                Pacini Editore SRL
                0392-100X
                1827-675X
                December 2017
                : 37
                : 6
                : 500-508
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy;
                [2 ] Department of Otolaryngology, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Rome, Italy;
                [3 ] Department of Sense Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
                Author notes
                Address for correspondence: Massimo Ralli, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome. viale del Policlinico 155, 00186 Rome, Italy. E-mail: massimo.ralli@ 123456uniroma1.it
                Article
                Pacini
                10.14639/0392-100X-1574
                5782428
                29327735
                cf5bac0d-043f-47b5-ac5a-ec998bbe07b3
                © Copyright by Società Italiana di Otorinolaringologia e Chirurgia Cervico-Facciale, Rome, Italy

                This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives License, which permits for noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any digital medium, provided the original work is properly cited and is not altered in any way. For details, please refer to http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/

                History
                : 11 January 2017
                : 02 May 2017
                Categories
                Audiology

                Otolaryngology
                acquired hearing loss,pediatric otolaryngology,genetic diagnosis,cochlear implant

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