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      Higher-level cognitive functions in Dutch elite and sub-elite table tennis players

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          Abstract

          This study aimed to investigate the higher-level cognitive functions (i.e. metacognition and executive functions) of Dutch competitive table tennis players to better understand its relevance for performance in this fast and complex sport. Thirty elite (age 16 ± 4) and thirty age and sex-matched sub-elite peers (age 16 ± 5) were assessed on metacognition and executive functions (working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility) using D-KEFS tests. Compared to norm scores, both the Dutch competitive elite and sub-elite table tennis players scored above average on all tests ( p < 0.05). MANOVA showed a main effect for performance level (elites outscored sub-elites; p < 0.05). T-tests revealed that elite players make less mistakes on tests for inhibitory control (CWI-3: 0.9 ± 0.9; CWI-4: 1.1 ± 1.2) than sub-elite players (CWI-3: 1.8 ± 1.1; CWI-4: 2.6 ± 1.5) ( p < 0.05). When controlling for training hours in a MANCOVA, no significant main effect of performance level remained ( p > 0.05). In conclusion, Dutch elite and sub-elite table tennis players are characterized by above-average scores on higher-level cognitive functions compared to norm scores. A relation with performance level has been shown, which may be explained by the greater exposure to table tennis for elite compared to sub-elite players. However, longitudinal research is needed to indicate the direction of this association.

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          Most cited references41

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          Executive Functions

          Executive functions (EFs) make possible mentally playing with ideas; taking the time to think before acting; meeting novel, unanticipated challenges; resisting temptations; and staying focused. Core EFs are inhibition [response inhibition (self-control—resisting temptations and resisting acting impulsively) and interference control (selective attention and cognitive inhibition)], working memory, and cognitive flexibility (including creatively thinking “outside the box,” seeing anything from different perspectives, and quickly and flexibly adapting to changed circumstances). The developmental progression and representative measures of each are discussed. Controversies are addressed (e.g., the relation between EFs and fluid intelligence, self-regulation, executive attention, and effortful control, and the relation between working memory and inhibition and attention). The importance of social, emotional, and physical health for cognitive health is discussed because stress, lack of sleep, loneliness, or lack of exercise each impair EFs. That EFs are trainable and can be improved with practice is addressed, including diverse methods tried thus far.
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            Executive function and the frontal lobes: a meta-analytic review.

            Currently, there is debate among scholars regarding how to operationalize and measure executive functions. These functions generally are referred to as "supervisory" cognitive processes because they involve higher level organization and execution of complex thoughts and behavior. Although conceptualizations vary regarding what mental processes actually constitute the "executive function" construct, there has been a historical linkage of these "higher-level" processes with the frontal lobes. In fact, many investigators have used the term "frontal functions" synonymously with "executive functions" despite evidence that contradicts this synonymous usage. The current review provides a critical analysis of lesion and neuroimaging studies using three popular executive function measures (Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Phonemic Verbal Fluency, and Stroop Color Word Interference Test) in order to examine the validity of the executive function construct in terms of its relation to activation and damage to the frontal lobes. Empirical lesion data are examined via meta-analysis procedures along with formula derivatives. Results reveal mixed evidence that does not support a one-to-one relationship between executive functions and frontal lobe activity. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of construing the validity of these neuropsychological tests in anatomical, rather than cognitive and behavioral, terms.
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              Perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport: a meta-analysis.

              Research focusing on perceptual-cognitive skill in sport is abundant. However, the existing qualitative syntheses of this research lack the quantitative detail necessary to determine the magnitude of differences between groups of varying levels of skills, thereby limiting the theoretical and practical contribution of this body of literature. We present a meta-analytic review focusing on perceptual-cognitive skill in sport (N = 42 studies, 388 effect sizes) with the primary aim of quantifying expertise differences. Effects were calculated for a variety of dependent measures (i.e., response accuracy, response time, number of visual fixations, visual fixation duration, and quiet eye period) using point-biserial correlation. Results indicated that experts are better than nonexperts in picking up perceptual cues, as revealed by measures of response accuracy and response time. Systematic differences in visual search behaviors were also observed, with experts using fewer fixations of longer duration, including prolonged quiet eye periods, compared with non-experts. Several factors (e.g., sport type, research paradigm employed, and stimulus presentation modality) significantly moderated the relationship between level of expertise and perceptual-cognitive skill. Practical and theoretical implications are presented and suggestions for empirical work are provided.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SoftwareRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Methodology
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                7 November 2018
                2018
                : 13
                : 11
                : e0206151
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
                [2 ] Institute of Sport Science, University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
                [3 ] International Table Tennis Federation, Lausanne, Switzerland
                [4 ] Department of Physical Education, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei City, Taiwan
                [5 ] Faculty of Human Resource Management and Applied Psychology, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, Deventer, The Netherlands
                [6 ] Radboud university medical centre, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, IQhealthcare, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
                Universita degli Studi di Verona, ITALY
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4994-0453
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2637-6877
                Article
                PONE-D-18-12247
                10.1371/journal.pone.0206151
                6221298
                30403711
                cf9bb434-b4fe-4c41-9a9f-96dd1a09cde6
                © 2018 Elferink-Gemser et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 23 April 2018
                : 8 October 2018
                Page count
                Figures: 0, Tables: 3, Pages: 13
                Funding
                The authors received no specific funding for this work.
                Categories
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                Custom metadata
                The data of this study cannot be made publicly available for ethical reasons; the public availability would compromise confidentiality and/or participant privacy. The data contains potentially identifying athlete information. This restriction is imposed by the Netherlands Table Tennis Association. Data will only be available on request and can be sent to the Netherlands Table Tennis Association using the email address jong@ 123456tafeltennis.nl .

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