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      The experiences of underrepresented minority faculty in schools of medicine

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          Abstract

          Introduction

          Faculty of color in schools of medicine play an essential role in addressing health disparities, increasing diversity in healthcare, and improving health professions education. Yet inadequate progress has been made in increasing the numbers of faculty of color in medical schools. The reasons for this gap, and ways to address it, are poorly understood.

          Methods

          We conducted a grounded theory study of 25 of faculty from groups historically underrepresented in academic medicine at 17 schools in the United States. Faculty were interviewed in person ( n=4, 16%) and by telephone ( n=21, 84%).

          Results

          We identified two processes that contribute to a greater understanding of the experiences of faculty of color: patterns of exclusion and control, and surviving and thriving. We also identified one outcome – faculty of color having influence.

          Conclusions

          Strong support from leaders, mentors, and peers to nurture and protect faculty of color in schools of medicine is needed to counteract the negative effects of racism and to promote the positive effects this group has on diversity and excellence in medical education. Specific strategies for survival and success are described.

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          The Discovery of Grounded Theory

          Barney G. Glaser, Anselm L. Strauss (1967)
          <p>Most writing on sociological method has been concerned with how accurate facts can be obtained and how theory can thereby be more rigorously tested. In The Discovery of Grounded Theory, Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss address the equally Important enterprise of how the discovery of theory from data--systematically obtained and analyzed in social research--can be furthered. The discovery of theory from data--grounded theory--is a major task confronting sociology, for such a theory fits empirical situations, and is understandable to sociologists and laymen alike. Most important, it provides relevant predictions, explanations, interpretations, and applications.</p><p>In Part I of the book, Generation Theory by Comparative Analysis, the authors present a strategy whereby sociologists can facilitate the discovery of grounded theory, both substantive and formal. This strategy involves the systematic choice and study of several comparison groups. In Part II, The Flexible Use of Data, the generation of theory from qualitative, especially documentary, and quantitative data Is considered. In Part III, Implications of Grounded Theory, Glaser and Strauss examine the credibility of grounded theory.</p><p>The Discovery of Grounded Theory is directed toward improving social scientists' capacity for generating theory that will be relevant to their research. While aimed primarily at sociologists, it will be useful to anyone Interested In studying social phenomena--political, educational, economic, industrial-- especially If their studies are based on qualitative data.</p></p>
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            Racial and ethnic disparities in faculty promotion in academic medicine.

            Jessica Colburn, E Moy, Greg J. Bishop-Hurley … (2000)
            Previous studies have suggested that minority medical school faculty are at a disadvantage in promotion opportunities compared with white faculty. To compare promotion rates of minority and white medical school faculty in the United States. Analysis of data from the Association of American Medical Colleges' Faculty Roster System, the official data system for tracking US medical school faculty. A total of 50,145 full-time US medical school faculty who became assistant professors or associate professors between 1980 and 1989. Faculty of historically black and Puerto Rican medical schools were excluded. Attainment of associate or full professorship among assistant professors and full professorship among associate professors by 1997, among white, Asian or Pacific Islander (API), underrepresented minority (URM; including black, Mexican American, Puerto Rican, Native American, and Native Alaskan), and other Hispanic faculty. By 1997, 46% of white assistant professors (13,479/28,953) had been promoted, whereas 37% of API (1123/2997; P<.001), 30% of URM (311/1053, P<.001), and 43% of other Hispanic assistant professors (256/598; P =.07) had been promoted. Similarly, by 1997, 50% of white associate professors (7234/14,559) had been promoted, whereas 44% of API (629/1419; P<.001), 36% of URM (101/280; P<.001), and 43% of other Hispanic (122/286; P =.02) associate professors had been promoted. Racial/ethnic disparities in promotion were evident among tenure and nontenure faculty and among faculty who received and did not receive National Institutes of Health research awards. After adjusting for cohort, sex, tenure status, degree, department, medical school type, and receipt of NIH awards, URM faculty remained less likely to be promoted compared with white faculty (relative risk [RR], 0.68 [99% confidence interval CI, 0.59-0.77] for assistant professors and 0.81 [99% CI, 0.65-0.99] for associate professors). API assistant professors also were less likely to be promoted (RR, 0.91 [99% CI, 0.84-0.98]), whereas API associate professors and other Hispanic assistant and associate professors were promoted at comparable rates. Our data indicate that minority faculty are promoted at lower rates compared with white faculty. JAMA. 2000;284:1085-1092
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              Race, disadvantage and faculty experiences in academic medicine.

              Sarah Cooper, Timothy P. Carr, Linda Pololi (2010)
              Despite compelling reasons to draw on the contributions of under-represented minority (URM) faculty members, US medical schools lack these faculty, particularly in leadership and senior roles. The study's purpose was to document URM faculty perceptions and experience of the culture of academic medicine in the US and to raise awareness of obstacles to achieving the goal of having people of color in positions of leadership in academic medicine. The authors conducted a qualitative interview study in 2006-2007 of faculty in five US medical schools chosen for their diverse regional and organizational attributes. Using purposeful sampling of medical faculty, 96 faculty were interviewed from four different career stages (early, plateaued, leaders and left academic medicine) and diverse specialties with an oversampling of URM faculty. We identified patterns and themes emergent in the coded data. Analysis was inductive and data driven. Predominant themes underscored during analyses regarding the experience of URM faculty were: difficulty of cross-cultural relationships; isolation and feeling invisible; lack of mentoring, role models and social capital; disrespect, overt and covert bias/discrimination; different performance expectations related to race/ethnicity; devaluing of research on community health care and health disparities; the unfair burden of being identified with affirmative action and responsibility for diversity efforts; leadership's role in diversity goals; and financial hardship. Achieving an inclusive culture for diverse medical school faculty would help meet the mission of academic medicine to train a physician and research workforce that meets the disparate needs of our multicultural society. Medical school leaders need to value the inclusion of URM faculty. Failure to fully engage the skills and insights of URM faculty impairs our ability to provide the best science, education or medical care.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Med Educ Online
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Med Educ Online
                Journal ID (publisher-id): MEO
                Title: Medical Education Online
                Publisher: Co-Action Publishing
                ISSN (Electronic): 1087-2981
                Publication date (Electronic): 02 December 2014
                Publication date Collection: 2014
                Volume: 19
                Electronic Location Identifier: 10.3402/meo.v19.24768
                Affiliations
                [1 ]School of Nursing, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
                [2 ]Department of Pediatrics, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific-Northwest, Western University of Health Sciences, Lebanon, OR, USA
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence to: Dena Hassouneh, School of Nursing, OHSU, 3455 SW US Veterans Hospital Rd., Portland, OR 97239, USA, Email: phillide@ 123456ohsu.edu
                Article
                Publisher ID: 24768
                DOI: 10.3402/meo.v19.24768
                PMC ID: 4255094
                PubMed ID: 25472784
                SO-VID: d10aaaed-a1eb-4b69-826f-2682a2935fca
                Copyright © © 2014 Dena Hassouneh et al.
                License:

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                Date received : 26 April 2014
                Date revision received : 19 September 2014
                Date accepted : 29 October 2014
                Categories
                Subject: Research Article

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Education
                Keywords: academic medicine,diversity,faculty of color,grounded theory,recruitment,retention,qualitative research,underrepresented minorities
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Education
                Keywords: academic medicine, diversity, faculty of color, grounded theory, recruitment, retention, qualitative research, underrepresented minorities

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