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      A neurobiological approach to the cognitive deficits of psychiatric disorders

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          Abstract

          Deficits in brain networks that support cognitive regulatory functions are prevalent in many psychiatric disorders. Findings across neuropsychology and neuroimaging point to broad-based impairments that cross traditional diagnostic boundaries. These dysfunctions are largely separate from the classical symptoms of the disorders, and manifest in regulatory problems in both traditional cognitive and emotional domains. As such, they relate to the capacity of patients to engage effectively in their daily lives and activity, often persist even in the face of symptomatically effective treatment, and are poorly targeted by current treatments. Advances in cognitive neuroscience now allow us to ground an understanding of these cognitive regulatory deficits in the function and interaction of key brain networks. This emerging neurobiological understanding furthermore points to several promising routes for novel neuroscience-informed treatments targeted more specifically at improving cognitive function in a range of psychiatric disorders.

          Translated abstract

          Los déficits en las redes cerebrales que dan soporte a las funciones de regulación cognitiva son frecuentes en muchos trastornos psiquiátricos. Los hallazgos de la neuropsicología y de las neuroimágenes apuntan a grandes deterioros que cruzan las fronteras de los diagnósticos tradicionales. Estas disfunciones son en gran medida independientes de los síntomas clásicos de los trastornos y se expresan en problemas de regulación de las áreas cognitiva y emocional. Es así como ellas se relacionan con la capacidad de los pacientes de participar efectivamente en la vida y en la actividad cotidiana, y a menudo persisten a pesar de los tratamientos sintomáticos efectivos y están mal abordadas por los tratamientos actuales. Los avances en las neurociencias cognitivas nos permiten aterrizar una comprensión de estos déficits de regulación cognitiva en la función e interacción de las principals redes cerebrales. Esta comprensión neuro-biológica emergente además señala algunas rutas promisorias para nuevos tratamientos en base a las neurociencias, orientados más específicamente a mejorar la función cognitiva en varios trastornos psiquiátricos.

          Translated abstract

          Les déficits des réseaux cérébraux à la base des fonctions régulatrices cognitives sont prévalents dans de nombreux troubles psychiatriques. Les données de neuropsychologie et de neuro-imagerie mettent en évidence des atteintes importantes qui dépassent les frontières diagnostiques traditionnelles. Ces atteintes sont bien séparées des symptômes classiques des troubles psychiatriques ; ce sont des problèmes de régulation dans les domaines émotionnel et cognitif traditionnels. À ce titre, ces troubles se reflètent dans l'aptitude des patients à participer efficacement à leurs activités et à leur vie quotidiennes ; ils persistent souvent malgré un traitement efficace sur les symptômes et sont mal pris en charge par les traitements actuels. Les progrès des neurosciences cognitives nous permettent maintenant de comprendre comment ces déficits de la régulation cognitive trouvent leur origine dans la fonction et l'interaction de réseaux cérébraux clés. Cette compréhension neurobiologique récente ouvre plusieurs voies prometteuses pour de nouveaux traitements basés sur les neurosciences et s'intéressant plus particulièrement à l'amélioration de la fonction cognitive dans de nombreux troubles mentaux.

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          Executive Functions

          Executive functions (EFs) make possible mentally playing with ideas; taking the time to think before acting; meeting novel, unanticipated challenges; resisting temptations; and staying focused. Core EFs are inhibition [response inhibition (self-control—resisting temptations and resisting acting impulsively) and interference control (selective attention and cognitive inhibition)], working memory, and cognitive flexibility (including creatively thinking “outside the box,” seeing anything from different perspectives, and quickly and flexibly adapting to changed circumstances). The developmental progression and representative measures of each are discussed. Controversies are addressed (e.g., the relation between EFs and fluid intelligence, self-regulation, executive attention, and effortful control, and the relation between working memory and inhibition and attention). The importance of social, emotional, and physical health for cognitive health is discussed because stress, lack of sleep, loneliness, or lack of exercise each impair EFs. That EFs are trainable and can be improved with practice is addressed, including diverse methods tried thus far.
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            The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "Frontal Lobe" tasks: a latent variable analysis.

            This individual differences study examined the separability of three often postulated executive functions-mental set shifting ("Shifting"), information updating and monitoring ("Updating"), and inhibition of prepotent responses ("Inhibition")-and their roles in complex "frontal lobe" or "executive" tasks. One hundred thirty-seven college students performed a set of relatively simple experimental tasks that are considered to predominantly tap each target executive function as well as a set of frequently used executive tasks: the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), Tower of Hanoi (TOH), random number generation (RNG), operation span, and dual tasking. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the three target executive functions are moderately correlated with one another, but are clearly separable. Moreover, structural equation modeling suggested that the three functions contribute differentially to performance on complex executive tasks. Specifically, WCST performance was related most strongly to Shifting, TOH to Inhibition, RNG to Inhibition and Updating, and operation span to Updating. Dual task performance was not related to any of the three target functions. These results suggest that it is important to recognize both the unity and diversity of executive functions and that latent variable analysis is a useful approach to studying the organization and roles of executive functions. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.
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              The brain's default network: anatomy, function, and relevance to disease.

              Thirty years of brain imaging research has converged to define the brain's default network-a novel and only recently appreciated brain system that participates in internal modes of cognition. Here we synthesize past observations to provide strong evidence that the default network is a specific, anatomically defined brain system preferentially active when individuals are not focused on the external environment. Analysis of connectional anatomy in the monkey supports the presence of an interconnected brain system. Providing insight into function, the default network is active when individuals are engaged in internally focused tasks including autobiographical memory retrieval, envisioning the future, and conceiving the perspectives of others. Probing the functional anatomy of the network in detail reveals that it is best understood as multiple interacting subsystems. The medial temporal lobe subsystem provides information from prior experiences in the form of memories and associations that are the building blocks of mental simulation. The medial prefrontal subsystem facilitates the flexible use of this information during the construction of self-relevant mental simulations. These two subsystems converge on important nodes of integration including the posterior cingulate cortex. The implications of these functional and anatomical observations are discussed in relation to possible adaptive roles of the default network for using past experiences to plan for the future, navigate social interactions, and maximize the utility of moments when we are not otherwise engaged by the external world. We conclude by discussing the relevance of the default network for understanding mental disorders including autism, schizophrenia, and Alzheimer's disease.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
                Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA, Sierra-Pacific Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California, USA
                Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
                Journal
                Dialogues Clin Neurosci
                Dialogues Clin Neurosci
                Dialogues Clin Neurosci
                Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
                Les Laboratoires Servier (France )
                1294-8322
                1958-5969
                December 2013
                December 2013
                : 15
                : 4
                : 419-429
                Affiliations
                Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
                Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA, Sierra-Pacific Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California, USA
                Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
                Author notes
                Article
                10.31887/DCNS.2013.15.4/aetkin
                3898680
                24459409
                d238f1f6-d5d0-4205-bc21-69caa5be79a3
                Copyright: © 2013 Institut la Conférence Hippocrate - Servier Research Group

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                Categories
                Translational Research

                Neurosciences
                amygdala,anxiety,bipolar,depression,prefrontal,cingulate,default mode,emotion regulation,executive function,schizophrenia

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