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      The Role of Oxidative Stress and Hormones in Controlling Obesity

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          Abstract

          The accumulation of adipose tissue in the body occurs because the energy introduced with food and drink exceeds that expense, but to understand why this imbalance is established and why it is maintained over time, it is important to consider the main causes and risk factors of excess weight. In this review, we will refer to the main factors linked to obesity, starting from oxidative stress to hormonal factors including the role of obesity in breast cancer. Among the many hypotheses formulated on the etiopathology of obesity, a key role can be attributed to the relationship between stress oxidative and intestinal microbiota. Multiple evidences tend to show that genetic, epigenetic, and lifestyle factors contribute to determine in the obese an imbalance of the redox balance correlated with the alteration of the intestinal microbial flora. Obesity acts negatively on the wound healing, in fact several studies indicate morbid obesity significantly increased the risk of a post-operative wound complication and infection. Currently, in the treatment of obesity, medical interventions are aimed not only at modifying caloric intake, but also to modulate and improve the composition of diet with the aim of rebalancing the microbiota-redox state axis.

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          Most cited references126

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          Foxp3(+) T cells regulate immunoglobulin a selection and facilitate diversification of bacterial species responsible for immune homeostasis.

          Foxp3(+) T cells play a critical role for the maintenance of immune tolerance. Here we show that in mice, Foxp3(+) T cells contributed to diversification of gut microbiota, particularly of species belonging to Firmicutes. The control of indigenous bacteria by Foxp3(+) T cells involved regulatory functions both outside and inside germinal centers (GCs), consisting of suppression of inflammation and regulation of immunoglobulin A (IgA) selection in Peyer's patches, respectively. Diversified and selected IgAs contributed to maintenance of diversified and balanced microbiota, which in turn facilitated the expansion of Foxp3(+) T cells, induction of GCs, and IgA responses in the gut through a symbiotic regulatory loop. Thus, the adaptive immune system, through cellular and molecular components that are required for immune tolerance and through the diversification as well as selection of antibody repertoire, mediates host-microbial symbiosis by controlling the richness and balance of bacterial communities required for homeostasis. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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            Minireview: The adipocyte--at the crossroads of energy homeostasis, inflammation, and atherosclerosis.

            Adipose tissue evolved to efficiently store energy for times of caloric restriction. The large caloric excess common in many Western diets has negated the need for this thrifty function, leaving adipose tissue ill-equipped to handle this increased load. An excess of adipose tissue increases risk for a number of conditions including coronary artery disease, hypertension, dyslipidemias, type 2 diabetes, and even cancer. Indeed, the ability of the adipocyte to function properly when engorged with lipid can lead to lipid accumulation in other tissues, reducing their ability to function and respond normally. The role of adipose tissue as an endocrine organ capable of secreting a number of adipose tissue-specific or enriched hormones, known as adipokines, is gaining appreciation. The normal balance of these adipose tissue secretory proteins is perturbed in obesity. Paradoxically, the lack of normal adipose tissue, as seen in cases of lipodystrophy and lipoatrophy, is also associated with pathologic sequelae similar to what is seen with obesity. The pathologic findings associated with lack of adipose tissue, largely due to inability to properly store lipids, may also be due to a lack of adipokines. In this review, we highlight the role of adipose tissue as an endocrine organ focusing on some of the recent advances in the identification and pharmacological characterization of adipokines as well as their regulation in the context of obesity and insulin-resistant states.
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              Gut microbiota and obesity.

              The human intestine harbors a complex bacterial community called the gut microbiota. This microbiota is specific to each individual despite the existence of several bacterial species shared by the majority of adults. The influence of the gut microbiota in human health and disease has been revealed in the recent years. Particularly, the use of germ-free animals and microbiota transplant showed that the gut microbiota may play a causal role in the development of obesity and associated metabolic disorders, and lead to identification of several mechanisms. In humans, differences in microbiota composition, functional genes and metabolic activities are observed between obese and lean individuals suggesting a contribution of the gut microbiota to these phenotypes. Finally, the evidence linking gut bacteria to host metabolism could allow the development of new therapeutic strategies based on gut microbiota modulation to treat or prevent obesity.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)
                Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)
                Front. Endocrinol.
                Frontiers in Endocrinology
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1664-2392
                13 August 2019
                2019
                : 10
                : 540
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Department of Precision Medicine, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli , Naples, Italy
                [2] 2Department of Biology, College of Science and Technology, Temple University , Philadelphia, PA, United States
                [3] 3Multidisciplinary Department of Medical-Surgical and Dental Specialties, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli , Naples, Italy
                [4] 4Faculty of Medicine, University of Tetovo , Tetovo, Macedonia
                [5] 5Department of Translational Medicad Sciences, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli , Naples, Italy
                [6] 6Plastic Surgery Unit, Multidisciplinary Department of Medical-Surgical and Dental Specialties, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli , Naples, Italy
                Author notes

                Edited by: Rajiv Saini, University of Medicine, Albania

                Reviewed by: Francesco Oriente, University of Naples Federico II, Italy; Simona Nanni, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy

                *Correspondence: Giuseppe Andrea Ferraro giuseppe.ferraro@ 123456unicampania.it

                This article was submitted to Translational Endocrinology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Endocrinology

                Article
                10.3389/fendo.2019.00540
                6701166
                31456748
                d3b4b57f-792a-4d25-a5d2-d4e38dd223e4
                Copyright © 2019 Di Domenico, Pinto, Quagliuolo, Contaldo, Settembre, Romano, Coppola, Ferati, Bexheti-Ferati, Sciarra, Nicoletti, Ferraro and Boccellino.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 15 April 2019
                : 19 July 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 4, Tables: 0, Equations: 0, References: 174, Pages: 13, Words: 11661
                Categories
                Endocrinology
                Review

                Endocrinology & Diabetes
                obesity,oxidative stress,thyroid,gut hormones,microbiota,wound healing
                Endocrinology & Diabetes
                obesity, oxidative stress, thyroid, gut hormones, microbiota, wound healing

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