The M1 and M2 paradigm of macrophage activation: time for reassessment

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Abstract

Macrophages are endowed with a variety of receptors for lineage-determining growth factors, T helper (Th) cell cytokines, and B cell, host, and microbial products. In tissues, macrophages mature and are activated in a dynamic response to combinations of these stimuli to acquire specialized functional phenotypes. As for the lymphocyte system, a dichotomy has been proposed for macrophage activation: classic vs. alternative, also M1 and M2, respectively. In view of recent research about macrophage functions and the increasing number of immune-relevant ligands, a revision of the model is needed. Here, we assess how cytokines and pathogen signals influence their functional phenotypes and the evidence for M1 and M2 functions and revisit a paradigm initially based on the role of a restricted set of selected ligands in the immune response.

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Most cited references 77

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Two types of murine helper T cell clone. I. Definition according to profiles of lymphokine activities and secreted proteins.

T R Mosmann, H Cherwinski, M Bond … (1986)

A panel of antigen-specific mouse helper T cell clones was characterized according to patterns of lymphokine activity production, and two types of T cell were distinguished. Type 1 T helper cells (TH1) produced IL 2, interferon-gamma, GM-CSF, and IL 3 in response to antigen + presenting cells or to Con A, whereas type 2 helper T cells (TH2) produced IL 3, BSF1, and two other activities unique to the TH2 subset, a mast cell growth factor distinct from IL 3 and a T cell growth factor distinct from IL 2. Clones representing each type of T cell were characterized, and the pattern of lymphokine activities was consistent within each set. The secreted proteins induced by Con A were analyzed by biosynthetic labeling and SDS gel electrophoresis, and significant differences were seen between the two groups of T cell line. Both types of T cell grew in response to alternating cycles of antigen stimulation, followed by growth in IL 2-containing medium. Examples of both types of T cell were also specific for or restricted by the I region of the MHC, and the surface marker phenotype of the majority of both types was Ly-1+, Lyt-2-, L3T4+, Both types of helper T cell could provide help for B cells, but the nature of the help differed. TH1 cells were found among examples of T cell clones specific for chicken RBC and mouse alloantigens. TH2 cells were found among clones specific for mouse alloantigens, fowl gamma-globulin, and KLH. The relationship between these two types of T cells and previously described subsets of T helper cells is discussed.

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IRF5 promotes inflammatory macrophage polarization and TH1-TH17 responses.

Thomas Krausgruber, Katrina Blazek, Tim Smallie … (2011)

Polymorphisms in the gene encoding the transcription factor IRF5 that lead to higher mRNA expression are associated with many autoimmune diseases. Here we show that IRF5 expression in macrophages was reversibly induced by inflammatory stimuli and contributed to the plasticity of macrophage polarization. High expression of IRF5 was characteristic of M1 macrophages, in which it directly activated transcription of the genes encoding interleukin 12 subunit p40 (IL-12p40), IL-12p35 and IL-23p19 and repressed the gene encoding IL-10. Consequently, those macrophages set up the environment for a potent T helper type 1 (T(H)1)-T(H)17 response. Global gene expression analysis demonstrated that exogenous IRF5 upregulated or downregulated expression of established phenotypic markers of M1 or M2 macrophages, respectively. Our data suggest a critical role for IRF5 in M1 macrophage polarization and define a previously unknown function for IRF5 as a transcriptional repressor.

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Two types of mouse T helper cell. IV. Th2 clones secrete a factor that inhibits cytokine production by Th1 clones

MW Bond, DF Fiorentino, TR Mosmann (1989)

A cytokine synthesis inhibitory factor (CSIF) is secreted by Th2 clones in response to Con A or antigen stimulation, but is absent in supernatants from Con A-induced Th1 clones. CSIF can inhibit the production of IL-2, IL-3, lymphotoxin (LT)/TNF, IFN-gamma, and granulocyte-macrophage CSF (GM-CSF) by Th1 cells responding to antigen and APC, but Th2 cytokine synthesis is not significantly affected. Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) also inhibits IFN-gamma production, although less effectively than CSIF, whereas IL-2 and IL-4 partially antagonize the activity of CSIF. CSIF inhibition of cytokine synthesis is not complete, since early cytokine synthesis (before 8 h) is not significantly affected, whereas later synthesis is strongly inhibited. In the presence of CSIF, IFN-gamma mRNA levels are reduced slightly at 8, and strongly at 12 h after stimulation. Inhibition of cytokine expression by CSIF is not due to a general reduction in Th1 cell viability, since actin mRNA levels were not reduced, and proliferation of antigen-stimulated cells in response to IL-2, was unaffected. Biochemical characterization, mAbs, and recombinant or purified cytokines showed that CSIF is distinct from IL-1, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IFN-gamma, GM-CSF, TGF-beta, TNF, LT, and P40. The potential role of CSIF in crossregulation of Th1 and Th2 responses is discussed.

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Author and article information

Contributors

Fernando O. Martinez

Siamon Gordon: http://f1000.com/prime/thefaculty/member/970440217307475

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Journal ID (nlm-ta): F1000Prime Rep

Journal ID (iso-abbrev): F1000Prime Rep

Title: F1000Prime Reports

Publisher: Faculty of 1000 Ltd

ISSN (Electronic): 2051-7599

Publication date (Electronic): 03 March 2014

Publication date Collection: 2014

Volume: 6

Electronic Location Identifier: 13

Affiliations

[1 ]Botnar Research Center, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, University of Oxford Windmill Road, OX3 7LD, OxfordUK

[2 ]Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3REUK

Article

Publisher ID: 13

DOI: 10.12703/P6-13

PMC ID: 3944738

PubMed ID: 24669294

SO-VID: d74a4a7b-447e-47a6-a463-ac1dd207086f

License:

All F1000Prime Reports articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial License, which permits non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The M1 and M2 paradigm of macrophage activation: time for reassessment

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Most cited references 77

Two types of murine helper T cell clone. I. Definition according to profiles of lymphokine activities and secreted proteins.

IRF5 promotes inflammatory macrophage polarization and TH1-TH17 responses.

Two types of mouse T helper cell. IV. Th2 clones secrete a factor that inhibits cytokine production by Th1 clones

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