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      Patterns of female nest attendance and male feeding throughout the incubation period in Blue Tits Cyanistes caeruleus

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      Ibis
      Wiley

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          Evolution of passerine incubation behavior: influence of food, temperature, and nest predation.

          Incubation behavior is one component of reproductive effort and thus influences the evolution of life-history strategies. We examined the relative importance of body mass, frequency of mate feeding, food, nest predation, and ambient temperature to explain interspecific variation in incubation behavior (nest attentiveness, on- and off-bout durations, and nest trips per hour) using comparative analyses for North American passerines in which only females incubate. Body mass and frequency of mate feeding explained little variation in incubation behavior. We were also unable to detect any influence of foot; diet and foraging strategy explained little interspecific variation in incubation behavior. However, the typical temperature encountered during reproduction explained significant variation in incubation behavior: Species breeding in colder environments take shorter bouts off the nest, which prevents eggs from cooling to temperatures below the physiological zero temperature. These species must compensate for shorter off-bouts by taking more of them (thus shorter on-bouts) to obtain needed energy for incubation. Nest predation also explains significant variation in incubation behavior among passerines: Species that endure high nest predation have evolved an incubation strategy (long on- and off-bouts) that minimizes activity that could attract predators. Nest substrate explained additional variation in incubation behavior (cavity-nesting birds have shorter on-bouts and make more frequent nest trips), presumably because nest predation and/or temperature varies among nest substrates. Thus, nest predation can influence reproductive effort in a way previously not demonstrated--by placing a constraint on parental activity at the nest. Incubating birds face an ecological cost associated with reproductive effort (predation of entire brood) that should be considered in future attempts to explain avian life-history evolution.
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            A new view of avian life-history evolution tested on an incubation paradox

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              Ecological, evolutionary, and conservation implications of incubation temperature-dependent phenotypes in birds.

              Incubation is a vital component of reproduction and parental care in birds. Maintaining temperatures within a narrow range is necessary for embryonic development and hatching of young, and exposure to both high and low temperatures can be lethal to embryos. Although it is widely recognized that temperature is important for hatching success, little is known about how variation in incubation temperature influences the post-hatching phenotypes of avian offspring. However, among reptiles it is well known that incubation temperature affects many phenotypic traits of offspring with implications for their future survival and reproduction. Although most birds, unlike reptiles, physically incubate their eggs, and thus behaviourally control nest temperatures, variation in temperature that influences embryonic development still occurs among nests within a population. Recent research in birds has primarily been limited to populations of megapodes and waterfowl; in each group, incubation temperature has substantial effects on hatchling phenotypic traits important for future development, survival, and reproduction. Such observations suggest that incubation temperature (and incubation behaviours of parents) is an important but underappreciated parental effect in birds and may represent a selective force instrumental in shaping avian reproductive ecology and life-history traits. However, much more research is needed to understand how pervasive phenotypic effects of incubation temperature are among birds, the sources of variation in incubation temperature, and how effects on phenotype arise. Such insights will not only provide foundational information regarding avian evolution and ecology, but also contribute to avian conservation. © 2013 The Authors. Biological Reviews © 2013 Cambridge Philosophical Society.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Ibis
                Ibis
                Wiley
                00191019
                May 25 2018
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Behavioural Ecology and Evolutionary Genetics; Max Planck Institute for Ornithology; Eberhard-Gwinner-Straße 82319 Seewiesen Germany
                Article
                10.1111/ibi.12614
                d90cc2d5-3b2f-4224-bbf1-d064264edd43
                © 2018

                http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tdm_license_1.1

                http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/

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