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      A new approach for the analysis of facial growth and age estimation: Iris ratio

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          Abstract

          The study of facial growth is explored in many fields of science, including anatomy, genetics, and forensics. In the field of forensics, it acts as a valuable tool for combating child pornography. The present research proposes a new method, based on relative measurements and fixed references of the human face—specifically considering measurements of the diameter of the iris (iris ratio)—for the analysis of facial growth in association with age in children and sub-adults. The experimental sample consisted of digital photographs of 1000 Brazilian subjects, aged between 6 and 22 years, distributed equally by sex and divided into five specific age groups (6, 10, 14, 18, and 22 year olds ± one month). The software package SAFF-2D ® (Forensic Facial Analysis System, Brazilian Federal Police, Brazil) was used for positioning 11 landmarks on the images. Ten measurements were calculated and used as fixed references to evaluate the growth of the other measurements for each age group, as well the accumulated growth (6–22 years old). The Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) was applied for the evaluation of intra-examiner and inter-examiner reliability within a specific set of images. Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient was used to assess the association between each measurement taken and the respective age groups. ANOVA and Post-hoc Tukey tests were used to search for statistical differences between the age groups. The outcomes indicated that facial structures grow with different timing in children and adolescents. Moreover, the growth allometry expressed in this study may be used to understand what structures have more or less proportional variation in function for the age ranges studied. The diameter of the iris was found to be the most stable measurement compared to the others and represented the best cephalometric measurement as a fixed reference for facial growth ratios (or indices). The method described shows promising potential for forensic applications, especially as part of the armamentarium against crimes involving child pornography and child abuse.

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          The problem of aging human remains and living individuals: a review.

          Forensic anthropology is affected by the unavoidable limits concerning difficulties in standardization of methods and procedures; age estimation is one of the main tasks of forensic anthropology and odontology, both on the dead and the living: literature has shown several methods of age estimation, and although they may be thought of as equivalent, every procedure has its limits, mean error, practical situation and age range where it gives the best results; the lack of standardization and consensus concerning which method can be used, as well as the lack of a practical approach in different cases is the main limit in a correct age estimation process. This review aims at exposing the experience of the authors working in the FASE (Forensic Anthropology Society of Europe) subsection of IALM (International Academy of Legal Medicine) in the field of age estimation both on the dead and the living, at highlighting advantages and limits of each method, and suggesting practical solutions concerning the age estimation process for adults and subadults, dead and living, and pedopornographic material.
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            Criteria for age estimation in living individuals.

            This paper presents updated recommendations of the Study Group on Forensic Age Diagnostics for age estimations in living individuals in criminal proceedings. In order to increase the diagnostic accuracy and to improve the identification of age-relevant developmental disorders, a physical examination, an X-ray examination of the left hand, as well as a dental examination including the determination of the dental status and an X-ray of the dentition should be performed in each case. If the skeletal development of the hand is completed, an additional radiological examination of the clavicles should be carried out. Minimum requirements for reference studies are defined and recommendable studies are listed. Instructions for the examination and the preparation of expert reports are presented. The committee of the study group organizes annual proficiency tests for quality assurance.
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              Use of skeletal maturation based on hand-wrist radiographic analysis as a predictor of facial growth: a systematic review.

              The purpose of this systematic review was to evaluate the predictive value of hand-wrist radiographic assessment of skeletal maturity in estimating facial growth timing and velocity. A search of PubMed, Medline, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Embase, Web of Sciences, and Lilacs identified 16 articles that met the following inclusion criteria: use of hand-wrist radiographs for skeletal maturation determination, facial growth evaluated through cephalometric radiographs, and cross-sectional or longitudinal studies. Five articles were rejected because of major methodological issues. Most of the remaining articles had small sample size, and there was no report of randomization or method error. Skeletal maturity determined by hand-wrist radiographic analysis was well related to overall facial growth velocity. Maxillary and mandibular growth velocities were related to skeletal maturity, but their relationship was less robust than that for overall facial growth. The available articles have not adequately defined a relationship between cranial base growth velocity and skeletal maturity. Hand-wrist radiographic assessment of skeletal maturity for use in facial growth prediction should include bone staging as well as ossification events. The role of skeletal maturity assessment in clinical and research applications is discussed and recommendations are provided.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SoftwareRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SoftwareRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: SoftwareRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ValidationRole: Visualization
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: Visualization
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: Visualization
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                7 July 2017
                2017
                : 12
                : 7
                : e0180330
                Affiliations
                [1 ]National Institute of Criminalistics, Brazilian Federal Police, Ministry of Justice, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil
                [2 ]Health Science College, University of Brasília, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil
                [3 ]Medico Legal Centre, Department of Pathology and Legal Medicine, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
                [4 ]School of Dentistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
                [5 ]School of Dentistry, Federal University of Maranhão, São Luís, Maranhão, Brazil
                [6 ]Piracicaba Dentistry School, State University of Campinas, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil
                [7 ]School of Dentistry, University Salgado de Oliveira, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
                [8 ]Department of Anthropology, National Museum, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
                [9 ]Department of Oral Health Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit, Leuven, Belgium
                [10 ]Department of Applied Sciences, Centre for Forensic Science, Northumbria University, Newcastle, United Kingdom
                Augusta University, UNITED STATES
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1417-2781
                Article
                PONE-D-16-23213
                10.1371/journal.pone.0180330
                5501545
                28686631
                d9d372a6-a579-44bf-aa66-b24ad9e30154
                © 2017 Machado et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 9 June 2016
                : 14 June 2017
                Page count
                Figures: 6, Tables: 8, Pages: 19
                Funding
                The authors received no specific funding for this work.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Diagnostic Medicine
                Clinical Laboratory Sciences
                Forensics
                Social Sciences
                Law and Legal Sciences
                Forensics
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Anatomy
                Head
                Face
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Anatomy
                Head
                Face
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Anatomy
                Anthropometry
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Anatomy
                Anthropometry
                People and Places
                Population Groupings
                Age Groups
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Public and Occupational Health
                Traumatic Injury Risk Factors
                Child Abuse
                Social Sciences
                Sociology
                Criminology
                Crime
                Child Abuse
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Pediatrics
                Child Abuse
                People and Places
                Population Groupings
                Age Groups
                Children
                People and Places
                Population Groupings
                Families
                Children
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Anatomy
                Ocular System
                Ocular Anatomy
                Iris
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Anatomy
                Ocular System
                Ocular Anatomy
                Iris
                Social Sciences
                Sociology
                Criminology
                Police
                People and Places
                Population Groupings
                Professions
                Police
                Custom metadata
                All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

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