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      The Environment of Regulatory T Cell Biology: Cytokines, Metabolites, and the Microbiome

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          Abstract

          Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are suppressive T cells that have an essential role in maintaining the balance between immune activation and tolerance. Their development, either in the thymus, periphery, or experimentally in vitro, and stability and function all depend on the right mix of environmental stimuli. This review focuses on the effects of cytokines, metabolites, and the microbiome on both human and mouse Treg biology. The role of cytokines secreted by innate and adaptive immune cells in directing Treg development and shaping their function is well established. New and emerging data suggest that metabolites, such as retinoic acid, and microbial products, such as short-chain fatty acids, also have a critical role in guiding the functional specialization of Tregs. Overall, the complex interaction between distinct environmental stimuli results in unique, and in some cases tissue-specific, tolerogenic environments. Understanding the conditions that favor Treg induction, accumulation, and function is critical to defining the pathophysiology of many immune-mediated diseases and to developing new therapeutic interventions.

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          Most cited references144

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          An immunomodulatory molecule of symbiotic bacteria directs maturation of the host immune system.

          The mammalian gastrointestinal tract harbors a complex ecosystem consisting of countless bacteria in homeostasis with the host immune system. Shaped by evolution, this partnership has potential for symbiotic benefit. However, the identities of bacterial molecules mediating symbiosis remain undefined. Here we show that, during colonization of animals with the ubiquitous gut microorganism Bacteroides fragilis, a bacterial polysaccharide (PSA) directs the cellular and physical maturation of the developing immune system. Comparison with germ-free animals reveals that the immunomodulatory activities of PSA during B. fragilis colonization include correcting systemic T cell deficiencies and T(H)1/T(H)2 imbalances and directing lymphoid organogenesis. A PSA mutant of B. fragilis does not restore these immunologic functions. PSA presented by intestinal dendritic cells activates CD4+ T cells and elicits appropriate cytokine production. These findings provide a molecular basis for host-bacterial symbiosis and reveal the archetypal molecule of commensal bacteria that mediates development of the host immune system.
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            TGFbeta in the context of an inflammatory cytokine milieu supports de novo differentiation of IL-17-producing T cells.

            We describe de novo generation of IL-17-producing T cells from naive CD4 T cells, induced in cocultures of naive CD4 T cells and naturally occurring CD4+ CD25+ T cells (Treg) in the presence of TLR3, TLR4, or TLR9 stimuli. Treg can be substituted by TGFbeta1, which, together with the proinflammatory cytokine IL-6, supports the differentiation of IL-17-producing T cells, a process that is amplified by IL-1beta and TNFalpha. We could not detect a role for IL-23 in the differentiation of IL-17-producing T cells but confirmed its importance for their survival and expansion. Transcription factors GATA-3 and T-bet, as well as its target Hlx, are absent in IL-17-producing T cells, and they do not express the negative regulator for TGFbeta signaling, Smad7. Our data indicate that, in the presence of IL-6, TGFbeta1 subverts Th1 and Th2 differentiation for the generation of IL-17-producing T cells.
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              A microbial symbiosis factor prevents intestinal inflammatory disease.

              Humans are colonized by multitudes of commensal organisms representing members of five of the six kingdoms of life; however, our gastrointestinal tract provides residence to both beneficial and potentially pathogenic microorganisms. Imbalances in the composition of the bacterial microbiota, known as dysbiosis, are postulated to be a major factor in human disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease. We report here that the prominent human symbiont Bacteroides fragilis protects animals from experimental colitis induced by Helicobacter hepaticus, a commensal bacterium with pathogenic potential. This beneficial activity requires a single microbial molecule (polysaccharide A, PSA). In animals harbouring B. fragilis not expressing PSA, H. hepaticus colonization leads to disease and pro-inflammatory cytokine production in colonic tissues. Purified PSA administered to animals is required to suppress pro-inflammatory interleukin-17 production by intestinal immune cells and also inhibits in vitro reactions in cell cultures. Furthermore, PSA protects from inflammatory disease through a functional requirement for interleukin-10-producing CD4+ T cells. These results show that molecules of the bacterial microbiota can mediate the critical balance between health and disease. Harnessing the immunomodulatory capacity of symbiosis factors such as PSA might potentially provide therapeutics for human inflammatory disorders on the basis of entirely novel biological principles.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Immunol
                Front Immunol
                Front. Immunol.
                Frontiers in Immunology
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1664-3224
                18 February 2015
                2015
                : 6
                : 61
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Department of Surgery, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia , Vancouver, BC, Canada
                Author notes

                Edited by: David A. Hafler, Yale School of Medicine, USA

                Reviewed by: António Gil Castro, University of Minho, Portugal; Margarita Dominguez-Villar, Yale School of Medicine, USA

                *Correspondence: Megan K. Levings, Department of Surgery, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, A4-186, 950 West 28th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada e-mail: mlevings@ 123456mail.ubc.ca

                Romy E. Hoeppli, Dan Wu and Laura Cook have contributed equally to this work.

                This article was submitted to T Cell Biology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Immunology.

                Article
                10.3389/fimmu.2015.00061
                4332351
                25741338
                dcc3e04e-b2fd-4e28-82c3-c1dd318c3ef2
                Copyright © 2015 Hoeppli, Wu, Cook and Levings.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 16 December 2014
                : 30 January 2015
                Page count
                Figures: 1, Tables: 1, Equations: 0, References: 228, Pages: 14, Words: 13876
                Categories
                Immunology
                Review Article

                Immunology
                regulatory t cells,foxp3,cytokines,metabolites,microbiome,plasticity,environment,immune regulation
                Immunology
                regulatory t cells, foxp3, cytokines, metabolites, microbiome, plasticity, environment, immune regulation

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