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      Toxins produced in cyanobacterial water blooms – toxicity and risks

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          Abstract

          Cyanobacterial blooms in freshwaters represent a major ecological and human health problem worldwide. This paper briefly summarizes information on major cyanobacterial toxins (hepatotoxins, neurotoxins etc.) with special attention to microcystins-cyclic heptapeptides with high acute and chronic toxicities. Besides discussion of human health risks, microcystin ecotoxicology and consequent ecological risks are also highlighted. Although significant research attention has been paid to microcystins, cyanobacteria produce a wide range of currently unknown toxins, which will require research attention. Further research should also address possible additive, synergistic or antagonistic effects among different classes of cyanobacterial metabolites, as well as interactions with other toxic stressors such as metals or persistent organic pollutants.

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          Cyanobacterial toxins: risk management for health protection.

          Geoffrey Codd, Louise F. Morrison, James S Metcalf (2005)
          This paper reviews the occurrence and properties of cyanobacterial toxins, with reference to the recognition and management of the human health risks which they may present. Mass populations of toxin-producing cyanobacteria in natural and controlled waterbodies include blooms and scums of planktonic species, and mats and biofilms of benthic species. Toxic cyanobacterial populations have been reported in freshwaters in over 45 countries, and in numerous brackish, coastal, and marine environments. The principal toxigenic genera are listed. Known sources of the families of cyanobacterial toxins (hepato-, neuro-, and cytotoxins, irritants, and gastrointestinal toxins) are briefly discussed. Key procedures in the risk management of cyanobacterial toxins and cells are reviewed, including derivations (where sufficient data are available) of tolerable daily intakes (TDIs) and guideline values (GVs) with reference to the toxins in drinking water, and guideline levels for toxigenic cyanobacteria in bathing waters. Uncertainties and some gaps in knowledge are also discussed, including the importance of exposure media (animal and plant foods), in addition to potable and recreational waters. Finally, we present an outline of steps to develop and implement risk management strategies for cyanobacterial cells and toxins in waterbodies, with recent applications and the integration of Hazard Assessment Critical Control Point (HACCP) principles.
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            The toxicology of microcystins.

            R.M. Dawson (1998)
            Microcystins are a family of more than 50 structurally similar hepatotoxins produced by species of freshwater cyanobacteria, primarily Microcystis aeruginosa. They are monocyclic heptapeptides, characterised by some invariant amino acids, including one of unusual structure which is essential for expression of toxicity. Microcystins are chemically stable, but suffer biodegradation in reservoir waters. The most common member of the family, microcystin-LR (L and R identifying the 2 variable amino acids, in this case leucine and arginine respectively) has an LD50 in mice and rats of 36-122 microg/kg by various routes, including aerosol inhalation. Although human illnesses attributed to microcystins include gastroenteritis and allergic/irritation reactions, the primary target of the toxin is the liver, where disruption of the cytoskeleton, consequent on inhibition of protein phosphatases 1 and 2A, causes massive hepatic haemorrhage. Microcystins are tight-binding inhibitors of these protein phosphatases, with inhibition constants in the nanomolar range or lower. Uptake of microcystins into the liver occurs via a carrier-mediated transport system, and several inhibitors of uptake can antagonise the toxic effects of microcystins. The most effective of these is the antibiotic rifampin (a drug approved for clinical use), which protects mice and rats against microcystin-induced lethality when given prophylactically and, in some cases, therapeutically.
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              Ecotoxicological effects of selected cyanobacterial secondary metabolites: a short review.

              C. Wiegand, S Pflugmacher (2005)
              Cyanobacteria are one of the most diverse groups of gram-negative photosynthetic prokaryotes. Many of them are able to produce a wide range of toxic secondary metabolites. These cyanobacterial toxins can be classified in five different groups: hepatotoxins, neurotoxins, cytotoxins, dermatotoxins, and irritant toxins (lipopolysaccharides). Cyanobacterial blooms are hazardous due to this production of secondary metabolites and endotoxins, which could be toxic to animals and plants. Many of the freshwater cyanobacterial blooms include species of the toxigenic genera Microcystis, Anabaena, or Plankthotrix. These compounds differ in mechanisms of uptake, affected organs, and molecular mode of action. In this review, the main focus is the aquatic environment and the effects of these toxins to the organisms living there. Some basic toxic mechanisms will be discussed in comparison to the mammalian system.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Interdiscip Toxicol
                Journal ID (publisher-id): ITX
                Title: Interdisciplinary Toxicology
                Publisher: Slovak Toxicology Society SETOX
                ISSN (Print): 1337-6853
                ISSN (Electronic): 1337-9569
                Publication date (Print): June 2009
                Publication date (Electronic): June 2009
                Volume: 2
                Issue: 2
                Pages: 36-41
                Affiliations
                Centre for Cyanobacteria and their Toxins, Institute of Botany, Academy of Sciences & Masaryk University, Faculty of Science, Brno, Czech Republic
                Author notes
                Correspondence address: Assoc. Prof. Luděk Bláha, PhD. Institute of Botany, CAS & RECETOX, Masaryk University, Kamenice 3, CZ-62500 Brno, Czech Republic. E-MAIL: blaha@ 123456recetox.muni.cz . TEL: +420-549493194, FAX: +420-549492840.
                Article
                Publisher ID: ITX-2-036
                DOI: 10.2478/v10102-009-0006-2
                PMC ID: 2984099
                PubMed ID: 21217843
                SO-VID: dd90c8d2-9789-4868-8b3e-dff46ba1779a
                Copyright © Copyright©2009 Slovak Toxicology Society SETOX
                License:

                This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                Date received : 06 May 2008
                Date revision received : 14 May 2009
                Date accepted : 15 May 2009
                Categories
                Subject: Original Article

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Toxicology
                Keywords: cylindrospermopsin,microcystin,peptide toxins,tumor promotion,ecotoxicology
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Toxicology
                Keywords: cylindrospermopsin, microcystin, peptide toxins, tumor promotion, ecotoxicology

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