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      New methods for estimating the tuberculosis case detection rate in high-HIV prevalence countries: the example of Kenya Translated title: Nuevos métodos para estimar la tasa de detección de casos de tuberculosis en los países con alta prevalencia de VIH: el ejemplo de Kenya Translated title: Nouvelles méthodes d'estimation du taux de dépistage de la tuberculose dans les pays à forte prévalence du VIH: exemple du Kenya

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          Abstract

          OBJECTIVE: To develop new methods for estimating the sputum smear-positive tuberculosis case detection rate (CDR) in a country where infection with HIV is prevalent. METHODS: We estimated the smear-positive tuberculosis CDR in HIV-negative and HIV-positive adults, and in all adults in Kenya. Data on time trends in tuberculosis case notification rates and on HIV infection prevalence in adults and in tuberculosis patients were used, along with data on tuberculosis control programme performance. FINDINGS: In 2006, the estimated smear-positive tuberculosis CDR in HIV-negative adults was 79% (95% confidence interval, CI: 64-94) and in HIV-positive adults, 57% (95% CI: 26-88), giving a weighted mean of 68% (95% CI: 49-87). The separate estimate for all smear-positive tuberculosis cases was 72% (95% CI: 53-91), giving an overall average for the three estimates of 70% (95% CI: 58-82). As the tuberculosis CDR in 1996 was 57% (95% CI: 47-67), the estimated increase by 2006 was 13 percentage points (95% CI: 6-20), or 23%. This increase was accompanied by a more than doubling of the resources devoted to tuberculosis control in Kenya, including facilities and staff. CONCLUSION: Using three approaches to estimate the tuberculosis CDR in a country where HIV infection is prevalent, we showed that expansion of the tuberculosis control programme in Kenya led to an increase of 23% in the CDR between 1996 and 2006. While the methods developed here can be applied in other countries with a high prevalence of HIV infection, they rely on precise data on trends in such prevalence in the general population and among tuberculosis patients.

          Translated abstract

          OBJETIVO: Desarrollar nuevos métodos para estimar la tasa de detección de casos (TDC) de tuberculosis con frotis de esputo positivo en un país con alta prevalencia de infección por VIH. MÉTODOS: Estimamos la TDC de tuberculosis bacilífera en adultos VIH-negativos y VIH-positivos, así como en todos los adultos de Kenya. Se utilizaron datos sobre las tendencias temporales de las tasas de notificación de casos de tuberculosis y sobre la prevalencia de la infección por VIH en los adultos y en los pacientes con tuberculosis, junto con datos sobre la eficacia del programa de lucha antituberculosa. RESULTADOS: En 2006, la TDC estimada de tuberculosis bacilífera fue del 79% (intervalo de confianza, IC, del 95%: 64-94) para los adultos VIH-negativos, y del 57% para los VIH-positivos, (IC95%: 26-88), lo que arroja una media ponderada del 68% (IC95%: 49-87). La estimación correspondiente a todos los casos bacilíferos de tuberculosis fue del 72% (IC95%: 53-91), lo que arroja una media global para las tres estimaciones del 70% (IC95%: 58-82). Dado que la TDC de tuberculosis en 1996 fue del 57% (IC95%: 47-67), el aumento estimado para 2006 es de 13 puntos porcentuales (IC95%: 6-20), lo que supone un incremento del 23%. Este aumento se asoció a una más que duplicación de los recursos dedicados al control de la tuberculosis en Kenya, incluidos trabajadores e instalaciones. CONCLUSION: Estimando de tres formas distintas la TDC en un país con alta prevalencia de infección por VIH, mostramos que la expansión del programa de lucha antituberculosa en Kenya condujo a un aumento del 23% de la TDC entre 1996 y 2006. Aunque pueden aplicarse en otros países con alta prevalencia de VIH, los métodos aquí desarrollados exigen datos precisos sobre las tendencias de esa prevalencia en la población general y entre los enfermos de tuberculosis.

          Translated abstract

          RÉSUMÉ OBJECTIF: Mettre au point de nouvelles méthodes pour estimer le taux de dépistage de la tuberculose à frottis positifs dans les pays de forte prévalence des infections à VIH. MÉTHODES: Nous avons estimé ce taux chez les adultes positifs et négatifs pour le VIH et chez l'ensemble des adultes au Kenya. Nous avons utilisé des données de tendance dans le temps des taux de notification de la tuberculose et des données de prévalence de l'infection à VIH chez les adultes et les individus tuberculeux, ainsi que des informations sur les performances du programme de lutte antituberculeuse. RÉSULTATS: En 2006, le taux de dépistage des cas de tuberculose à frottis positifs chez les adultes négatifs pour le VIH était estimé à 79 % (intervalle de confiance à 95 %, IC : 64-94) et chez les adultes positifs pour ce virus à 57 % (IC à 95 % : 26-88), ce qui donnait une moyenne pondérée de 68 % (IC à 95 % : 49-87). En estimant séparément le taux de dépistage pour l'ensemble des cas de tuberculose à frottis positifs, on obtenait une valeur de 72 % (IC à 95 % : 53-91), d'où une moyenne globale pour les trois estimations de 70 % (IC à 95 % : 58-82). Le taux de dépistage de la tuberculose en 1996 étant de 57 % (IC à 95 % : 47-67), l'augmentation entre 1996 et 2006 a été estimée à 13 points de pourcentage (IC à 95 % : 6-20), soit 23 %. En parallèle à cet accroissement, le montant des ressources consacrées à la lutte antituberculeuse au Kenya, y compris les installations et le personnel, a plus que doublé. CONCLUSION: En utilisant trois approches pour estimer le taux de dépistage de la tuberculose dans un pays de forte prévalence du VIH, nous avons montré que l'expansion du programme de lutte antituberculeuse kenyan avait entraîné une augmentation de 23 % du taux de dépistage de la tuberculose entre 1996 et 2006. Bien que les méthodes mises au point puissent être appliquées dans d'autres pays de forte prévalence des infections à VIH, cette application doit s'appuyer sur des données précises concernant les tendances de la prévalence de ces infections parmi la population générale et les individus tuberculeux.

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          Most cited references32

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          Outcomes after two years of providing antiretroviral treatment in Khayelitsha, South Africa.

          A community-based antiretroviral therapy (ART) programme was established in 2001 in a South African township to explore the operational issues involved in providing ART in the public sector in resource-limited settings and demonstrate the feasibility of such a service. Data was analysed on a cohort of patients with symptomatic HIV disease and a CD4 lymphocyte count or =50 x 10 cells/l, and 81.8% for those with a baseline CD4 lymphocyte count < 50 x 10 cells/l. The cumulative probability of changing a single antiretroviral drug by 24 months was 15.1% due to adverse events or contraindications, and 8.4% due to adverse events alone. ART can be provided in resource-limited settings with good patient retention and clinical outcomes. With responsible implementation, ART is a key component of a comprehensive response to the epidemic in those communities most affected by HIV.
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            Effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy on incidence of tuberculosis in South Africa: a cohort study.

            Studies of the effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) on the risk of HIV-1-associated tuberculosis have had variable results. We set out to determine the effect of HAART on the risk of tuberculosis in South Africa. We compared the risk of tuberculosis in 264 patients who received HAART in phase III clinical trials and a prospective cohort of 770 non-HAART patients who were attending Somerset Hospital adult HIV clinic, University of Cape Town, between 1992 and 2001. Poisson regression models were fitted to determine risk of tuberculosis; patients were stratified by CD4 count, WHO clinical stage, and socioeconomic status. HAART was associated with a lower incidence of tuberculosis (2.4 vs 9.7 cases per 100 patient-years, adjusted rate ratio 0.19 [95% CI 0.9-0 38]; p<0.0001). This finding was apparent across all strata of socioeconomic status, baseline WHO stage, and CD4 count, except in patients with CD4 counts of more than 350 cells/microL. The number of tuberculosis cases averted by HAART was greatest in patients with WHO stage 3 or 4 (18.8 averted cases per 100 patient-years, adjusted rate ratio 0. 22 [0.09-0.41]; p=0.03) and in those with CD4 counts of less than 200 cells/microL (14.2 averted cases per 100 patient-years, adjusted rate ratio 0.18 [0.07-0.47]; p,0.0001). HAART reduced the incidence of HIV-1-associated tuberculosis by more than 80% (95% CI 62-91) in an area endemic with tuberculosis and HIV-1. The protective effect of HAART was greatest in symptomatic patients and those with advanced immune suppression.
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              HIV-1 and recurrence, relapse, and reinfection of tuberculosis after cure: a cohort study in South African mineworkers.

              The proportion of recurrent tuberculosis cases attributable to relapse or reinfection and the risk factors associated with these different mechanisms are poorly understood. We followed up a cohort of 326 South African mineworkers, who had successfully completed treatment for pulmonary tuberculosis in 1995, to determine the rate and mechanisms of recurrence. Patients were examined 3 and 6 months after cure, and then were monitored by the routine tuberculosis surveillance system until December, 1998. IS6110 DNA fingerprints from initial and subsequent episodes of tuberculosis were compared to determine whether recurrence was due to relapse or reinfection All patients gave consent for HIV-1 testing. During follow-up (median 25.1 months, IQR 13.2-33.4), 65 patients (20%) had a recurrent episode of tuberculosis, a recurrence rate of 10.3 episodes per 100 person-years at risk (PYAR)-16.0 per 100 pyar in HIV-1-positive patients and 6.4 per 100 pyar in HIV-1-negative patients. Paired DNA fingerprints were available in 39 of 65 recurrences: 25 pairs were identical (relapse) and 14 were different (reinfection). 93% (13/14) of recurrences within the first 6 months were attributable to relapse compared with 48% (12/25) of later recurrences. HIV-1 infection was a risk factor for recurrence (hazard ratio 2.4, 95% CI 1.5-4.0), due to its strong association with disease caused by reinfection (18.7 2.4-143), but not relapse (0.58; 0.24-1.4). Residual cavitation and increasing years of employment at the mine were risk factors for relapse. In a setting with a high risk of tuberculous infection, HIV-1 increases the risk of recurrent tuberculosis because of an increased risk of reinfection. Interventions to prevent recurrent disease, such as lifelong chemoprophylaxis in HIV-1-positive tuberculosis patients, should be further assessed.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                bwho
                Bulletin of the World Health Organization
                Bull World Health Organ
                World Health Organization (Genebra, Genebra, Switzerland )
                0042-9686
                March 2009
                : 87
                : 3
                : 186-192B
                Affiliations
                [03] Nairobi orgnameNational Leprosy and Tuberculosis Control Programme Kenya
                [01] Nairobi orgnameCenters for Disease Control and Prevention orgdiv1US Department of Health and Human Services Kenya
                [02] Geneva orgnameWorld Health Organization orgdiv1Stop TB Department Switzerland
                Article
                S0042-96862009000300012 S0042-9686(09)08700312
                2654653
                19377714
                dee80598-0e73-41c9-9761-6490659dda70

                History
                : 20 January 2008
                : 25 June 2008
                Page count
                Figures: 0, Tables: 0, Equations: 0, References: 32, Pages: 0
                Product

                SciELO Public Health

                Self URI: Full text available only in PDF format (EN)
                Categories
                Research

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