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      Critical and Sensitive Periods in Development and Nutrition

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          Abstract

          Critical or sensitive periods in the life of an organism during which certain experiences or conditions may exert disproportionate influence (either for harm or benefit) on long-term developmental outcomes have been the subject of investigation for over a century. This chapter reviews research in the context of the development of social preferences and sensory systems, with a summary of the criteria for defining such a period and the evidence necessary to establish its existence. The notion of nutritional programming, central to the Barker/Developmental Origins hypotheses of health and disease, represents a variant of the critical/sensitive period concept. It is implicit in these hypotheses that the fetal period is a time during which metabolic and physiological systems are malleable and thus susceptible to either insult or enhancement by nutrient intake. Evidence for critical/sensitive periods or nutritional programming requires a systematic manipulation of the age at which nutritional conditions or supplements are implemented. While common in research using animal models, the approach is difficult to establish in epidemiological studies and virtually nonexistent in human clinical trials. Future work seeking to establish definitive evidence for critical/sensitive periods or programming may be advanced by harmonized outcome measures in experimental trials across which the timing, duration, and dose of nutrients is varied.

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          Critical periods in speech perception: new directions.

          A continuing debate in language acquisition research is whether there are critical periods (CPs) in development during which the system is most responsive to environmental input. Recent advances in neurobiology provide a mechanistic explanation of CPs, with the balance between excitatory and inhibitory processes establishing the onset and molecular brakes establishing the offset of windows of plasticity. In this article, we review the literature on human speech perception development within the context of this CP model, highlighting research that reveals the interplay of maturational and experiential influences at key junctures in development and presenting paradigmatic examples testing CP models in human subjects. We conclude with a discussion of how a mechanistic understanding of CP processes changes the nature of the debate: The question no longer is, "Are there CPs?" but rather what processes open them, keep them open, close them, and allow them to be reopened.
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            Developmental origins of health and disease.

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              Nutrition in early life and the programming of adult disease: a review.

              Foetal development and infancy are life stages that are characterised by rapid growth, development and maturation of organs and systems. Variation in the quality or quantity of nutrients consumed by mothers during pregnancy, or infants during the first year of life, can exert permanent and powerful effects upon developing tissues. These effects are termed 'programming' and represent an important risk factor for noncommunicable diseases of adulthood, including the metabolic syndrome and coronary heart disease. This narrative review provides an overview of the evidence-base showing that indicators of nutritional deficit in pregnancy are associated with a greater risk of type-2 diabetes and cardiovascular mortality. There is also a limited evidence-base that suggests some relationship between breastfeeding and the timing and type of foods used in weaning, and disease in later life. Many of the associations reported between indicators of early growth and adult disease appear to interact with specific genotypes. This supports the idea that programming is one of several cumulative influences upon health and disease acting across the lifespan. Experimental studies have provided important clues to the mechanisms that link nutritional challenges in early life to disease in adulthood. It is suggested that nutritional programming is a product of the altered expression of genes that regulate the cell cycle, resulting in effective remodelling of tissue structure and functionality. The observation that traits programmed by nutritional exposures in foetal life can be transmitted to further generations adds weight the argument that heritable epigenetic modifications play a critical role in nutritional programming. © 2014 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                ANM
                Ann Nutr Metab
                10.1159/issn.0250-6807
                Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism
                S. Karger AG
                978-3-318-06789-7
                0250-6807
                1421-9697
                2019
                June 2020
                18 June 2020
                : 75
                : Suppl 1
                : 34-42
                Affiliations
                [_a] aDepartment of Psychology and Schiefelbusch Institute for Life Span Studies, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA
                [_b] bHoglund Brain Imaging Center, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
                [_c] cDepartment of Dietetics and Nutrition, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
                Author notes
                *John Colombo, Department of Psychology and Schiefelbusch Institute for Life Span Studies, University of Kansas, 1000 Sunnyside Avenue, Lawrence, KS 66045 (USA), colombo@ku.edu
                Article
                508053 Ann Nutr Metab 2019;75(suppl 1):34–42
                10.1159/000508053
                32554960
                e0b4b67b-e8ec-4f2f-b70f-5c276436921f
                © 2020 S. Karger AG, Basel

                Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug. Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.

                History
                : 03 December 2019
                : 16 March 2020
                Page count
                Figures: 1, Pages: 9
                Categories
                Young Brain – Big Appetite

                Nutrition & Dietetics,Health & Social care,Public health
                Critical period,Sensitive period,Nutritional programming

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