This book is part of the “Africa Development Forum” series, jointly created in 2009
by the World Bank Group (WBG) and Agence française de développement (AFD) to “focus
on issues of significant relevance to Sub-Saharan Africa’s social and economic development”
(p. v). Two of the five studies published in 2018 and 2019 provide extensive analyses
of education and training issues: Facing forward: Schooling for learning in Africa
(Bashir et al. 2018),1 and the Skills balancing act study reviewed below. Both are
excellent. They should be required reading for practitioners and policymakers working
on such issues in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).
The titles of the skills study’s five chapters aptly describe its focus: (1) Skills
and economic transformation; (2) Developing universal foundation skills; (3) Building
skills for the school-to-work transition; (4) Building skills for productivity through
higher education; and (5) Addressing skills gaps: continuing and remedial education
and training for adults and out-of-school youth. Five aspects of the study’s comprehensive
analysis are particularly noteworthy:
First, it covers the skills needs of the whole economy rather than, as is often the
case, focusing on the tiny modern sector, or, in World Economic Forum speak, on “4th
Industrial Revolution Skills”. Because 80–90% of SSA’s labour force is engaged in
the informal economy, the required accelerated economic transition and poverty reduction
cannot be achieved without strong productivity growth in the informal economy, especially
in agriculture (APP 2014; ACET 2017; AGRA 2018; AfDB 2018).2 While achieving this
requires investments in many areas, massive skills upgrading is indispensable.
Second, and related, this study examines the skills needs both of those already in
the labour force as well as of future labour force entrants. Despite SSA’s impressive
improved education access over the past two decades, the skills gap evident in comparison
with other regions has increased. More than two-thirds of workers in SSA have not
completed primary education, and more than 300 million have low, if any, literacy
skills. Despite these alarming facts, the proportion of domestic and external financing
dedicated to the monumental task of skills upgrading is negligible. Also, for the
foreseeable future, regardless of their level of education, the large majority of
youths will need to create their own employment in the informal economy. Therefore,
the study’s extensive analysis of this challenge, and of ways to address it, is particularly
useful. Moreover, the authors strongly emphasise that, in addition to enhancing productivity
growth, what is key to being able to access other basic human rights, such as good
health and active participation in social and civic life, is building foundation skills
for all. This should include investments in maternal health, child nutrition, early
childhood education and solid literacy and numeracy.
Third, this study covers the national system of Technical and Vocational Education
and Training (TVET) in its entirety. Formal, non-formal and informal TVET streams
in SSA are mostly disconnected from each other. Formal TVET is of poor quality and
relevance and principally serves the small sector of the formal economy. The informal
economy largely has to rely on informal and non-formal training and, importantly,
on traditional apprenticeships (Adams et al. 2013).3 Without trying to “formalise”
such training, SSA governments must do more to improve its quality and protect the
rights of the trainees. Moreover, formal TVET must become more accessible and relevant
to the needs of the informal economy. This study also includes a useful discussion
of agricultural extension services, noting that the externalities of farmer skills
upgrading, combined with well-executed agricultural extension, make a strong case
for public intervention.
Fourth, commendable attention is given to the very difficult resource allocation trade-offs
most SSA countries face in better aligning their skills investments with the three
policy objectives cited in the study’s title: improved productivity, inclusivity and
adaptability. Importantly, in making such trade-offs, the study emphasises that investment
in universal foundational skills is “unambiguously wise”, as it contributes to all
three objectives. Given SSA’s uniquely challenging educational, demographic and economic
context, I strongly agree with the study’s adamant prioritisation of foundation skills.
What 21st-century skills could be more needed?
Fifth, this study calls for drastically improved education system performance. It
correctly laments the serious economic and human waste resulting from systems where
the majority of youth do not acquire even basic literacy and numeracy. Addressing
this – and enabling better management of the harsh policy trade-offs of the skills
balancing act – requires hugely improved institutional capacity in the education sector.
To reiterate, this is an excellent study. However, what is unfortunately missing in
this volume are recommendations regarding education funding priorities in SSA for
WBG, AFD and other agencies to address the study’s welcome recommended priority for
universal foundation skills. Though their significance is perhaps obvious, two areas
deserve attention here.
First, while most SSA countries are unlikely to even reach universal completion of
primary education by 2030, the share of both domestic and external education funding
devoted to primary education has declined in recent years. Moreover, funding for basic
skills upgrading, including adult literacy, has already been negligible for decades.
This is likely to continue, given the pressure for post-basic education, now reinforced
by the fourth United Nations Education Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 4) calling
for universal completion of upper secondary education and access to tertiary education
(UN 2015).4
This study does not discuss its recommended priority for universal foundation skills
much in terms of its implications for SSA’s ability to reach the other SDG 4 targets
(ibid.). In fact, SDG 4 is barely mentioned. This is a pity, given the dominating
role this goal plays in the global education debate. This study can play an important
role in helping countries prioritise those SDG 4 targets that have the strongest positive
impact on overall economic productivity, inclusivity and adaptability. The importance
of such prioritisation is accentuated by the severe negative impact COVID-19 is likely
to have on economic growth and, thus, on education financing. In the absence of such
prioritisation, SDG 4 risks strengthening the voice of those who already benefit most
from public education spending, and who demand publicly funded post-basic education
far beyond what is warranted by labour market demands. This would slow down productivity
growth in the informal economy and further weaken the rights and voices of those who
will miss out even on basic foundation skills (Fredriksen 2020).5
Second, I hope a future volume in this series will examine successful strategies for
improving education system performance. The massive support for capacity development
(CD) of key education institutions, provided over the last three decades by WBG and
other agencies, has a poor track record (World Bank 2005a, 2005b; de Grauwe 2009).6
This stands in contrast to the results of such support for key finance and economic
institutions in particular. This disparity is explained by many factors, including
a more favourable incentive environment and higher priority given by both governments
and donors to strengthening such institutions. At the same time, education systems
have also become larger, more decentralised and very complex.
But, besides this complexity, the “administrative culture” of education ministries
and related institutions – often characterised by low accountability and a high degree
of patronage, corruption and politicisation – is also a key constraint on improving
system performance. Furthermore, what matters are the quality and modalities of the
support provided. The two above-referenced 2005 WBG evaluations (WBG 2005a, 2005b)
of its support for CD in the education sector found that it often lacked clear objectives
and focus, relying on fragmented project-by-project approaches, and that the resulting
institutional strengthening was modest. Much can be learned from a systematic CD programme
developed over the last two decades. Managed by the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
with broad donor support, it is designed to strengthen economic and financial institutions
worldwide.7 This includes a global network of 16 regional technical support centres,
including six created in SSA since 2002. No similar global or regional technical and
knowledge-support programmes exist in the education sector. In fact, unlike global
public good functions
8 in the health, economic and some other sectors, they remain severely underfunded
in the education sector.9