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      Calcium Orthophosphates in Nature, Biology and Medicine

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          Abstract

          The present overview is intended to point the readers’ attention to the important subject of calcium orthophosphates. These materials are of the special significance because they represent the inorganic part of major normal (bones, teeth and dear antlers) and pathological ( i.e. those appearing due to various diseases) calcified tissues of mammals. Due to a great chemical similarity with the biological calcified tissues, many calcium orthophosphates possess remarkable biocompatibility and bioactivity. Materials scientists use this property extensively to construct artificial bone grafts that are either entirely made of or only surface-coated with the biologically relevant calcium ortho-phosphates. For example, self-setting hydraulic cements made of calcium orthophosphates are helpful in bone repair, while titanium substitutes covered by a surface layer of calcium orthophosphates are used for hip joint endoprostheses and as tooth substitutes. Porous scaffolds made of calcium orthophosphates are very promising tools for tissue engineering applications. In addition, technical grade calcium orthophosphates are very popular mineral fertilizers. Thus ere calcium orthophosphates are of great significance for humankind and, in this paper, an overview on the current knowledge on this subject is provided.

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          Biological materials: Structure and mechanical properties

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            Mechanical properties and the hierarchical structure of bone.

            Detailed descriptions of the structural features of bone abound in the literature; however, the mechanical properties of bone, in particular those at the micro- and nano-structural level, remain poorly understood. This paper surveys the mechanical data that are available, with an emphasis on the relationship between the complex hierarchical structure of bone and its mechanical properties. Attempts to predict the mechanical properties of bone by applying composite rule of mixtures formulae have been only moderately successful, making it clear that an accurate model should include the molecular interactions or physical mechanisms involved in transfer of load across the bone material subunits. Models of this sort cannot be constructed before more information is available about the interactions between the various organic and inorganic components. Therefore, further investigations of mechanical properties at the 'materials level', in addition to the studies at the 'structural level' are needed to fill the gap in our present knowledge and to achieve a complete understanding of the mechanical properties of bone.
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              THE MATERIAL BONE: Structure-Mechanical Function Relations

              ▪ Abstract The term bone refers to a family of materials, all of which are built up of mineralized collagen fibrils. They have highly complex structures, described in terms of up to 7 hierarchical levels of organization. These materials have evolved to fulfill a variety of mechanical functions, for which the structures are presumably fine-tuned. Matching structure to function is a challenge. Here we review the structure-mechanical relations at each of the hierarchical levels of organization, highlighting wherever possible both underlying strategies and gaps in our knowledge. The insights gained from the study of these fascinating materials are not only important biologically, but may well provide novel ideas that can be applied to the design of synthetic materials.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Materials (Basel)
                Materials (Basel)
                materials
                Materials
                Molecular Diversity Preservation International
                1996-1944
                20 April 2009
                June 2009
                : 2
                : 2
                : 399-498
                Affiliations
                Kudrinskaja sq. 1-155, Moscow 123242, Russia; E-Mail: sedorozhkin@ 123456yandex.ru ; Tel. +7-499-255-4460
                Article
                materials-02-00399
                10.3390/ma2020399
                5445702
                e407cb33-b423-49b7-9607-551afc0645d4
                © 2009 by the authors;

                licensee Molecular Diversity Preservation International, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).

                History
                : 24 February 2009
                : 09 April 2009
                : 20 April 2009
                Categories
                Review

                calcium orthophosphates,antlers,biological apatite,biomaterials,bioceramics,biomimetics,biomineralization,bone grafts,bones,calcified tissues,fluorapatite,hydroxyapatite,materials chemistry,pathological calcification,teeth,tissue engineering

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