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      Estimating Indoor PM 2.5 and CO Concentrations in Households in Southern Nepal: The Nepal Cookstove Intervention Trials

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          Abstract

          High concentrations of household air pollution (HAP) due to biomass fuel usage with unvented, insufficient combustion devices are thought to be an important health risk factor in South Asia population. To better characterize the indoor concentrations of particulate matter (PM 2.5) and carbon monoxide (CO), and to understand their impact on health in rural southern Nepal, this study analyzed daily monitoring data collected with DataRAM pDR-1000 and LASCAR CO data logger in 2980 households using traditional biomass cookstove indoor through the Nepal Cookstove Intervention Trial–Phase I between March 2010 and October 2011. Daily average PM 2.5 and CO concentrations collected in area near stove were 1,376 (95% CI, 1,331–1,423) μg/m 3 and 10.9 (10.5–11.3) parts per million (ppm) among households with traditional cookstoves. The 95 th percentile, hours above 100μg/m 3 for PM 2.5 or 6ppm for CO, and hours above 1000μg/m 3 for PM 2.5 or 9ppm for CO were also reported. An algorithm was developed to differentiate stove-influenced (SI) periods from non-stove-influenced (non-SI) periods in monitoring data. Average stove-influenced concentrations were 3,469 (3,350–3,588) μg/m 3 for PM 2.5 and 21.8 (21.1–22.6) ppm for CO. Dry season significantly increased PM 2.5 concentration in all metrics; wood was the cleanest fuel for PM 2.5 and CO, while adding dung into the fuel increased concentrations of both pollutants. For studies in rural southern Nepal, CO concentration is not a viable surrogate for PM 2.5 concentrations based on the low correlation between these measures. In sum, this study filled a gap in knowledge on HAP in rural Nepal using traditional cookstoves and revealed very high concentrations in these households.

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          Respiratory risks from household air pollution in low and middle income countries.

          Stephen Gordon, Nigel G. Bruce, Jonathan Grigg … (2014)
          A third of the world's population uses solid fuel derived from plant material (biomass) or coal for cooking, heating, or lighting. These fuels are smoky, often used in an open fire or simple stove with incomplete combustion, and result in a large amount of household air pollution when smoke is poorly vented. Air pollution is the biggest environmental cause of death worldwide, with household air pollution accounting for about 3·5-4 million deaths every year. Women and children living in severe poverty have the greatest exposures to household air pollution. In this Commission, we review evidence for the association between household air pollution and respiratory infections, respiratory tract cancers, and chronic lung diseases. Respiratory infections (comprising both upper and lower respiratory tract infections with viruses, bacteria, and mycobacteria) have all been associated with exposure to household air pollution. Respiratory tract cancers, including both nasopharyngeal cancer and lung cancer, are strongly associated with pollution from coal burning and further data are needed about other solid fuels. Chronic lung diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and bronchiectasis in women, are associated with solid fuel use for cooking, and the damaging effects of exposure to household air pollution in early life on lung development are yet to be fully described. We also review appropriate ways to measure exposure to household air pollution, as well as study design issues and potential effective interventions to prevent these disease burdens. Measurement of household air pollution needs individual, rather than fixed in place, monitoring because exposure varies by age, gender, location, and household role. Women and children are particularly susceptible to the toxic effects of pollution and are exposed to the highest concentrations. Interventions should target these high-risk groups and be of sufficient quality to make the air clean. To make clean energy available to all people is the long-term goal, with an intermediate solution being to make available energy that is clean enough to have a health impact.
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            Validation of continuous particle monitors for personal, indoor, and outdoor exposures.

            Lance A. Wallace, Amanda J Wheeler, Jill Kearney … (2015)
            Continuous monitors can be used to supplement traditional filter-based methods of determining personal exposure to air pollutants. They have the advantages of being able to identify nearby sources and detect temporal changes on a time scale of a few minutes. The Windsor Ontario Exposure Assessment Study (WOEAS) adopted an approach of using multiple continuous monitors to measure indoor, outdoor (near-residential) and personal exposures to PM₂.₅, ultrafine particles and black carbon. About 48 adults and households were sampled for five consecutive 24-h periods in summer and winter 2005, and another 48 asthmatic children for five consecutive 24-h periods in summer and winter 2006. This article addresses the laboratory and field validation of these continuous monitors. A companion article (Wheeler et al., 2010) provides similar analyses for the 24-h integrated methods, as well as providing an overview of the objectives and study design. The four continuous monitors were the DustTrak (Model 8520, TSI, St. Paul, MN, USA) and personal DataRAM (pDR) (ThermoScientific, Waltham, MA, USA) for PM₂.₅; the P-Trak (Model 8525, TSI) for ultrafine particles; and the Aethalometer (AE-42, Magee Scientific, Berkeley, CA, USA) for black carbon (BC). All monitors were tested in multiple co-location studies involving as many as 16 monitors of a given type to determine their limits of detection as well as bias and precision. The effect of concentration and electronic drift on bias and precision were determined from both the collocated studies and the full field study. The effect of rapid changes in environmental conditions on switching an instrument from indoor to outdoor sampling was also studied. The use of multiple instruments for outdoor sampling was valuable in identifying occasional poor performance by one instrument and in better determining local contributions to the spatial variation of particulate pollution. Both the DustTrak and pDR were shown to be in reasonable agreement (R² of 90 and 70%, respectively) with the gravimetric PM₂.₅ method. Both instruments had limits of detection of about 5 μg/m³. The DustTrak and pDR had multiplicative biases of about 2.5 and 1.6, respectively, compared with the gravimetric samplers. However, their average bias-corrected precisions were <10%, indicating that a proper correction for bias would bring them into very good agreement with standard methods. Although no standard methods exist to establish the bias of the Aethalometer and P-Trak, the precision was within 20% for the Aethalometer and within 10% for the P-Trak. These findings suggest that all four instruments can supply useful information in environmental studies.
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              Indoor exposure to particulate matter and the incidence of acute lower respiratory infections among children: a birth cohort study in urban Bangladesh.

              R Haque, W Petri, H Salje … (2013)
              Approximately half of all children under two years of age in Bangladesh suffer from an acute lower respiratory infection (ALRI) each year. Exposure to indoor biomass smoke has been consistently associated with an increased risk of ALRI in young children. Our aim was to estimate the effect of indoor exposure to particulate matter (PM2.5 ) on the incidence of ALRI among children in a low-income, urban community in Bangladesh. We followed 257 children through two years of age to determine their frequency of ALRI and measured the PM2.5 concentrations in their sleeping space. Poisson regression was used to estimate the association between ALRI and the number of hours per day that PM2.5 concentrations exceeded 100 μg/m(3) , adjusting for known confounders. Each hour that PM2.5 concentrations exceeded 100 μg/m(3) was associated with a 7% increase in incidence of ALRI among children aged 0-11 months (adjusted incidence rate ratio (IRR) 1.07, 95% CI 1.01-1.14), but not in children 12-23 months old (adjusted IRR 1.00, 95% CI 0.92-1.09). Results from this study suggest that reducing indoor PM2.5 exposure could decrease the frequency of ALRI among infants, the children at highest risk of death from these infections. © 2013 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
              Article 0 comments Cited 32 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Thomas H Thatcher: Role: Editor
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): PLoS One
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): PLoS ONE
                Journal ID (publisher-id): plos
                Journal ID (pmc): plosone
                Title: PLoS ONE
                Publisher: Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                ISSN (Electronic): 1932-6203
                Publication date (Electronic): 7 July 2016
                Publication date Collection: 2016
                Volume: 11
                Issue: 7
                Electronic Location Identifier: e0157984
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
                [2 ]Department of Biostatistics, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
                [3 ]Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
                [4 ]Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
                [5 ]Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
                [6 ]Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, George Washington University, Washington, DC, United States of America
                University of Rochester Medical Center, UNITED STATES
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Conceived and designed the experiments: JT PB SZ JK. Performed the experiments: JT PB JK WC. Analyzed the data: CC SZ JK FC. Wrote the paper: CC SZ PB JT JK WC FC.

                Article
                Publisher ID: PONE-D-15-51841
                DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0157984
                PMC ID: 4936723
                PubMed ID: 27389398
                SO-VID: e4e9f9a5-8571-4d5d-8037-5c7b469b7fe9
                License:

                This is an open access article, free of all copyright, and may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication.

                History
                Date received : 30 November 2015
                Date accepted : 8 June 2016
                Page count
                Figures: 4, Tables: 7, Pages: 17
                Funding
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000066, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences;
                Award ID: ES015558
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100005627, Thrasher Research Fund;
                Award ID: 02830
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: United Nations Foundation
                Award ID: UNF-12-380
                Award Recipient :
                National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, United States National Institutes of Health (ES015558) (JT), the Thrasher Research Fund (02830-4) (JT), and the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves of the United Nations Foundation (UNF-12-380) (JT). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
                Subject: Research Article
                Subject: Engineering and Technology
                Subject: Energy and Power
                Subject: Fuels
                Subject: Physical Sciences
                Subject: Materials Science
                Subject: Materials by Attribute
                Subject: Fuels
                Subject: People and Places
                Subject: Geographical Locations
                Subject: Asia
                Subject: Nepal
                Subject: Biology and Life Sciences
                Subject: Organisms
                Subject: Plants
                Subject: Grasses
                Subject: Physical Sciences
                Subject: Chemistry
                Subject: Environmental Chemistry
                Subject: Pollutants
                Subject: Ecology and Environmental Sciences
                Subject: Environmental Chemistry
                Subject: Pollutants
                Subject: Biology and Life Sciences
                Subject: Organisms
                Subject: Plants
                Subject: Grasses
                Subject: Bamboo
                Subject: Engineering and Technology
                Subject: Environmental Engineering
                Subject: Pollution
                Subject: Air Pollution
                Subject: Physical Sciences
                Subject: Chemistry
                Subject: Chemical Elements
                Subject: Tin
                Subject: Earth Sciences
                Subject: Seasons
                Custom metadata
                Data Availability All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Uncategorized
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Uncategorized

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