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      Cost effectiveness of guided Internet‐based interventions for depression in comparison with control conditions: An individual–participant data meta‐analysis

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          Abstract

          Background

          There is limited evidence on the cost effectiveness of Internet‐based treatments for depression. The aim was to evaluate the cost effectiveness of guided Internet‐based interventions for depression compared to controls.

          Methods

          Individual–participant data from five randomized controlled trials (RCT), including 1,426 participants, were combined. Cost‐effectiveness analyses were conducted at 8 weeks, 6 months, and 12 months follow‐up.

          Results

          The guided Internet‐based interventions were more costly than the controls, but not statistically significant (12 months mean difference = €406, 95% CI: − 611 to 1,444). The mean differences in clinical effects were not statistically significant (12 months mean difference = 1.75, 95% CI: − .09 to 3.60 in Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale [CES‐D] score, .06, 95% CI: − .02 to .13 in response rate, and .00, 95% CI: − .03 to .03 in quality‐adjusted life‐years [QALYs]). Cost‐effectiveness acceptability curves indicated that high investments are needed to reach an acceptable probability that the intervention is cost effective compared to control for CES‐D and response to treatment (e.g., at 12‐month follow‐up the probability of being cost effective was .95 at a ceiling ratio of 2,000 €/point of improvement in CES‐D score). For QALYs, the intervention's probability of being cost effective compared to control was low at the commonly accepted willingness‐to‐pay threshold (e.g., at 12‐month follow‐up the probability was .29 and. 31 at a ceiling ratio of 24,000 and 35,000 €/QALY, respectively).

          Conclusions

          Based on the present findings, guided Internet‐based interventions for depression are not considered cost effective compared to controls. However, only a minority of RCTs investigating the clinical effectiveness of guided Internet‐based interventions also assessed cost effectiveness and were included in this individual–participant data meta‐analysis.

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          Most cited references23

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          The epidemiology of depression across cultures.

          Epidemiological data are reviewed on the prevalence, course, socio-demographic correlates, and societal costs of major depression throughout the world. Major depression is estimated in these surveys to be a commonly occurring disorder. Although estimates of lifetime prevalence and course vary substantially across countries for reasons that could involve both substantive and methodological processes, the cross-national data are clear in documenting meaningful lifetime prevalence with wide variation in age-of-onset and high risk of lifelong chronic-recurrent persistence. A number of sociodemographic correlates of major depression are found consistently across countries, and cross-national data also document associations with numerous adverse outcomes, including difficulties in role transitions (e.g., low education, high teen childbearing, marital disruption, unstable employment), reduced role functioning (e.g., low marital quality, low work performance, low earnings), elevated risk of onset, persistence and severity of a wide range of secondary disorders, and increased risk of early mortality due to physical disorders and suicide.
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            [Measuring the quality of life in economic evaluations: the Dutch EQ-5D tariff].

            To value EQ-5D health states by a general Dutch public. EQ-5D is a standardised questionnaire that is used to calculate quality-adjusted life-years for cost-utility analysis. Descriptive. A sample of 309 Dutch adults from Rotterdam and surroundings was asked to value 17 EQ-5D health states using the time trade-off method. Regression analysis was applied to the valuations of these 17 health states. By means of the estimated regression coefficients, which together constitute the so-called Dutch tariff, valuations can be determined for all possible EQ-5D health states. These values reflect the relative desirability of health states on a scale where 1 refers to full health and 0 refers to death. Societal valuations are necessary in order to correct life-years for the quality of life. Complete data were obtained from 298 persons. Theywere representative for the Dutch population as far as age, gender and subjective health were concerned, but had a somewhat higher educational level. The estimated Dutch EQ-5D tariff revealed that the respondents assigned the most weight to (preventing) pain and anxiety or depression, followed by mobility, self-care and the activities of daily living. The Dutch tariff differed from the UK ('Measurement and Valuation of Health') tariff, which is currently used in Dutch cost-utility analyses. Compared to UK respondents, Dutch respondents assigned more weight to anxiety and depression and less weight to the other dimensions. Conclusion. The valuation of health states by this representative Dutch study group differed from the valuation that is currently used in Dutch cost-utility analyses.
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              Cognitive behavior therapy via the Internet: a systematic review of applications, clinical efficacy and cost-effectiveness.

              Internet-based cognitive behavior therapy (ICBT) is a promising treatment that may increase availability of cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) for psychiatric disorders and other clinical problems. The main objective of this study was to determine the applications, clinical efficacy and cost-effectiveness of ICBT. The authors conducted a systematic review to identify randomized controlled trials investigating CBT delivered via the internet for adult patient populations. Searches to identify studies investigating cost-effectiveness of ICBT were also conducted. Evidence status for each clinical application was determined using the American Psychologist Association criteria for empirically supported treatments. Of 1104 studies reviewed, 108 met criteria for inclusion, of which 103 reported on clinical efficacy and eight on cost-effectiveness. Results showed that ICBT has been tested for 25 different clinical disorders, whereas most randomized controlled trials have been aimed at depression, anxiety disorders and chronic pain. Internet-based treatments for depression, social phobia and panic disorder were classified as well-established, that is, meeting the highest level of criteria for evidence. Effect sizes were large in the treatment of depression, anxiety disorders, severe health anxiety, irritable bowel syndrome, female sexual dysfunction, eating disorders, cannabis use and pathological gambling. For other clinical problems, effect sizes were small to moderate. Comparison to conventional CBT showed that ICBT produces equivalent effects. Cost-effectiveness data were relatively scarce but suggested that ICBT has more than 50% probability of being cost effective compared with no treatment or to conventional CBT when willingness to pay for an additional improvement is zero. Although ICBT is a promising treatment option for several disorders, it can only be regarded as a well-established treatment for depression, panic disorder and social phobia. It seems that ICBT is as effective as conventional CBT for respective clinical disorder, that is, if conventional CBT works then ICBT works. The large effects and the limited therapist time required suggest that the treatment is highly cost effective for well-established indications.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                s.kolovos@vu.nl
                Journal
                Depress Anxiety
                Depress Anxiety
                10.1002/(ISSN)1520-6394
                DA
                Depression and Anxiety
                John Wiley and Sons Inc. (Hoboken )
                1091-4269
                1520-6394
                12 January 2018
                March 2018
                : 35
                : 3 , FOCUS ON: ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION WORLDWIDE ( doiID: 10.1002/da.2018.35.issue-3 )
                : 209-219
                Affiliations
                [ 1 ] Department of Health Sciences Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute VU University Amsterdam Amsterdam The Netherlands
                [ 2 ] Department of Clinical Neuro and Developmental Psychology, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Amsterdam The Netherlands
                [ 3 ] Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Institute of Psychology University of Erlangen‐Nürnberg Nägelsbachstr Erlangen Germany
                [ 4 ] ArboNed Utrecht The Netherlands
                [ 5 ] Division of Online Health Training Innovation Incubator Leuphana University Lueneburg Lueneburg Germany
                [ 6 ] Department of Community Health and Epidemiology Faculty of Medicine Dalhousie University Halifax Nova Scotia Canada
                [ 7 ] Stichting Benchmark GGZ (the Dutch Benchmark Foundation in Mental Health Care) Bilthoven The Netherlands
                Author notes
                [*] [* ] Correspondence

                Spyros Kolovos, Department of Health Sciences and Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

                Email: s.kolovos@ 123456vu.nl

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3201-1743
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5497-2743
                Article
                DA22714
                10.1002/da.22714
                5888145
                29329486
                e51796ba-bf75-49eb-b1a6-07ce19a5d0d2
                © 2018, The Authors. Depression and Anxiety published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

                This is an open access article under the terms of the http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ License, which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non‐commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.

                History
                : 14 September 2017
                : 24 November 2017
                : 11 December 2017
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 3, Pages: 11, Words: 7934
                Funding
                Funded by: FP7 Health
                Award ID: 603098
                Categories
                Review
                Review
                Custom metadata
                2.0
                da22714
                March 2018
                Converter:WILEY_ML3GV2_TO_NLMPMC version:version=5.3.4 mode:remove_FC converted:06.04.2018

                Clinical Psychology & Psychiatry
                cost effectiveness,cost utility,depression,individual–participant data meta‐analysis,internet‐based intervention

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