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      Trichothecenes: From Simple to Complex Mycotoxins

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          Abstract

          As the world’s population grows, access to a safe food supply will continue to be a global priority. In recent years, the world has experienced an increase in mycotoxin contamination of grains due to climatic and agronomic changes that encourage fungal growth during cultivation. A number of the molds that are plant pathogens produce trichothecene mycotoxins, which are known to cause serious human and animal toxicoses. This review covers the types of trichothecenes, their complexity, and proposed biosynthetic pathways of trichothecenes.

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          Fungal secondary metabolism - from biochemistry to genomics.

          Nancy Keller, Geoffrey Turner, Joan W. Bennett (2005)
          Much of natural product chemistry concerns a group of compounds known as secondary metabolites. These low-molecular-weight metabolites often have potent physiological activities. Digitalis, morphine and quinine are plant secondary metabolites, whereas penicillin, cephalosporin, ergotrate and the statins are equally well known fungal secondary metabolites. Although chemically diverse, all secondary metabolites are produced by a few common biosynthetic pathways, often in conjunction with morphological development. Recent advances in molecular biology, bioinformatics and comparative genomics have revealed that the genes encoding specific fungal secondary metabolites are clustered and often located near telomeres. In this review, we address some important questions, including which evolutionary pressures led to gene clustering, why closely related species produce different profiles of secondary metabolites, and whether fungal genomics will accelerate the discovery of new pharmacologically active natural products.
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            Global molecular surveillance reveals novel Fusarium head blight species and trichothecene toxin diversity.

            David Starkey, Todd Ward, Takayuki Aoki … (2007)
            To expand our knowledge of Fusarium head blight (FHB) pathogen and trichothecene toxin diversity, a global collection of 2100 isolates was screened for novel genetic variation, resulting in the identification of 16 phylogenetically divergent FHB isolates. The affinities and taxonomic status of these novel isolates were evaluated via phylogenetic analyses of multilocus DNA sequence data (13 genes; 16.3 kb/strain) together with analyses of their morphology, pathogenicity to wheat, and trichothecene toxin potential. Based on the results of these analyses, we formally describe two novel species (Fusarium vorosii and Fusarium gerlachii) within the Fusarium graminearum species complex (Fg complex), and provide the first published report of Fg complex isolates with either a nivalenol or 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol chemotype within the U.S. In addition, we describe a highly divergent population of F. graminearum from the Gulf Coast of the U.S., and divergent isolates of F. acaciae-mearnsii from Australia and South Africa.
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              Genes, gene clusters, and biosynthesis of trichothecenes and fumonisins inFusarium

              Nancy Alexander, Robert H. Proctor, Susan P. McCormick (2009)
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Toxins (Basel)
                Journal ID (publisher-id): toxins
                Title: Toxins
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 2072-6651
                Publication date (Electronic): 01 July 2011
                Publication date Collection: July 2011
                Volume: 3
                Issue: 7
                Pages: 802-814
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Bacterial Foodborne Pathogens and Mycology, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agriculture Research Service, Peoria, IL 61604, USA; Email: Nancy.Alexander@ 123456ars.usda.gov
                [2 ] Biology Department, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; Email: misty717@ 123456sbcglobal.net (A.M.S.); nstover@ 123456bradley.edu (N.A.S.)
                Author notes
                [* ] Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; Email: Susan.McCormick@ 123456ars.usda.gov ; Tel.:+1-309-681-6381; Fax:+1-309-681-6627.
                Article
                Publisher ID: toxins-03-00802
                DOI: 10.3390/toxins3070802
                PMC ID: 3202860
                PubMed ID: 22069741
                SO-VID: e686376b-003a-4d91-8bf5-628d8c823063
                Copyright © © 2011 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
                License:

                This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).

                History
                Date received : 26 May 2011
                Date revision received : 10 June 2011
                Date accepted : 29 June 2011
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Molecular medicine
                Keywords: trichothecenes, mycotoxins, type a, type b, macrocyclic, d-type, t-type, toxin biosynthesis
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Molecular medicine
                Keywords: trichothecenes, mycotoxins, type a, type b, macrocyclic, d-type, t-type, toxin biosynthesis

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