Draghi-Lorenz et al. (2001), in their well-cited review article (104 times in Google
Scholar and 37 times in Web of Science, as of 07 December 2015), outlined current
theories of emotional development in infants. They summarized the arguments of a few
well-known researchers in the field, describing both the theoretical approaches and
the rationale behind those approaches. In the end, the authors argued against the
mainstream chronology describing the emergence of so-called “nonbasic” emotions. According
to their critical review, infants younger than 2 years old may have the capacity to
experience these emotions.
Draghi-Lorenz et al. first delineated those emotions widely considered “basic,” namely
interest, disgust, joy, distress, anger, sadness, surprise, and fear. The nonbasic
emotions are shame, embarrassment, coyness, shyness, guilt, jealousy, pride, contempt
and so on. Then the researchers further explored the literature surrounding some of
the nonbasic emotions, finding a surprising number of studies showing that infants
as young as 2 months might be found to express these emotions (Guillaume, 1926; Buhler,
1930; Piaget, 1932; Hoffmann, 1984; Masciuch, 1988; Reissland, 1990; Trevarthen, 1992;
Reddy, 2000). For example, Reddy (2000) found that 2–3 month-old infants showed “coy”
smiling, which occurs simultaneously with gaze/head aversion and curving arm movement,
and had been reported before only in 2-year-old toddlers earliest.
Next, the review presented two contrasting emotional development theorists from two
theoretical polarities: the Lewis (Lewis, 1987, 1993) and the Trevarthen (Trevarthen,
1979, 1984) theories. Fundamentally, Lewis's framework may best be illustrated in
the context of two basic and interconnected proposals: “The young infant is incapable
of ‘nonbasic’ emotions because these depend on specific higher representational skill
and this is so because until these skills emerge the infant cannot experience his/her
own emotions nor those of others” (Draghi-Lorenz et al., 2001, p. 273).
The key difference between Lewis's and Trevarthen's reasoning lies in Trevarthen's
belief that both nonbasic and basic emotions are independent from higher representational
skills, which are developed only later in life. Furthermore, Trevarthen holds a nativist
point of view on the matter of when interpersonal awareness is present (from birth,
if not before). Draghi-Lorenz et al. (2001) argued specifically against those two
concepts in the conclusion of their review. Instead, they suggested a theoretical
construct that synthesizes emotion and representational skills and adopts a different
perspective on interpersonal awareness. Conceivably, this approach could explain a
great deal about the emergence of nonbasic emotions and account for the large discrepancies
between theorists of early emotional development. The authors noted that most psychologists
in the field believe that nonbasic emotions emerge when at the age of two. These psychologists
assume that a conceptual representation of the self is necessary for the expression
of such emotions as pride, guilt, jealousy, etc. and that the capacity for interpersonal
awareness develops no sooner than 2 years after birth.
Ultimately, Draghi-Lorenz et al. developed a theoretical frame of reference for early
nonbasic emotions to assess the possibility of more complex emotions in infants younger
than 2 years, while also giving a nod to theoretical and practical consequences. Importantly,
the authors claimed, “interpersonal awareness should be understood as a continuous
process rather than as an achievement at some point in time” (p. 296). Therefore,
infants' acquisition of the capacity to express increasingly complex emotions should
not be seen as a one-time accomplishment but rather as an on-going process starting
early in life (possible before birth), finally ending late in adulthood (or possibly
never). The authors agreed there is somewhat limited evidence supporting the possibility
of early nonbasic emotions, but they elaborated on some other important points stemming
from their critical review. They pointed out that it is feasible that infants are
aware of others from a quite early age (by showing interest in human features such
as face, human voice and movement) (Walker-Andrews, 1997) and that an infant also
may have awareness of itself (e.g., Butterworth, 1989, 1995). In the end, Draghi-Lorenz
et al. appropriately and importantly noted that paradigm change in the perception
of how and when complex (i.e., nonbasic) emotions emerge highlights infants as agents
with significantly more competency who are active participants in social interactions.
The shortcomings of Draghi-Lorenz et al.'s review must be acknowledged. Most glaringly,
the research presented in their article supporting the early emergence of nonbasic
emotions is outdated. Few papers cited are from the Twenty-first century. Many papers
represent research from the first half of the Twentieth century, with the earliest
citation dating to 1892. In addition, the methodologies for acquiring and analyzing
data have evolved dramatically since the middle of the last century. That is, future
research in development of infant's emotions could benefit from emotion coding software
(e.g., Lewinski et al., 2014a), which can objectively code (based on objective datasets
such as Olszanowski et al., 2015) large numbers of facial videos outperforming even
human coders under certain circumstances (Lewinski, 2015a). Such software can help
in saving substantial amount of coding time (Lewinski et al., 2014b; Lewinski, 2015b).
Nonetheless, research after 2001 supports Draghi-Lorenz et al. conclusions. For example:
(i) Colonnesi et al. (2013) replicated and extended Reddy (2000) findings to positive
shyness; (ii) Hart and Carrington (2002) and Hart et al. (2004) provided new evidence
on 6-month-old infants being jealous of mother's attention; (iii) Draghi-Lorenz et
al. (2005) found that 2-to-4-month-old infants “can be perceived as shy, coy, bashful
or embarrassed” (p. 63).
In conclusion, Draghi-Lorenz et al. were innovative in their review of and challenge
to the status quo of procedures and knowledge in the realm of early childhood emotional
development. Following the authors' line of reasoning, one may concur that the nonbasic
emotions might be present in infants much younger than 2 years old. Nonetheless, without
a doubt, more data could be collected that would support the opposite point of view.
If a choice must be made, perhaps it is better to consider the infant as “competent
neonate” rather than needy and “not-that-sophisticated” beings.
Funding
The research leading to these results has received funding from the People Programme
(Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007-2013/
under REA grant agreement 290255.
Conflict of interest statement
The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial
or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.